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Diffstat (limited to 'Doc')
217 files changed, 22058 insertions, 4572 deletions
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/arg.rst b/Doc/c-api/arg.rst index d4dda7c..b28aa5f 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/arg.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/arg.rst @@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated. Like ``u#``, but the Python object may also be ``None``, in which case the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` pointer is set to *NULL*. -``U`` (:class:`str`) [PyUnicodeObject \*] +``U`` (:class:`str`) [PyObject \*] Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without attempting any conversion. Raises :exc:`TypeError` if the object is not a Unicode object. The C variable may also be declared as :c:type:`PyObject\*`. @@ -260,9 +260,12 @@ Numbers ``n`` (:class:`int`) [Py_ssize_t] Convert a Python integer to a C :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`. -``c`` (:class:`bytes` of length 1) [char] - Convert a Python byte, represented as a :class:`bytes` object of length 1, - to a C :c:type:`char`. +``c`` (:class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` of length 1) [char] + Convert a Python byte, represented as a :class:`bytes` or + :class:`bytearray` object of length 1, to a C :c:type:`char`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Allow :class:`bytearray` objects. ``C`` (:class:`str` of length 1) [int] Convert a Python character, represented as a :class:`str` object of @@ -315,6 +318,15 @@ Other objects .. versionchanged:: 3.1 ``Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`` was added. +``p`` (:class:`bool`) [int] + Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean **p**\redicate) and converts + the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value. + Sets the int to 1 if the expression was true and 0 if it was false. + This accepts any valid Python value. See :ref:`truth` for more + information about how Python tests values for truth. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + ``(items)`` (:class:`tuple`) [*matching-items*] The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of format units in *items*. The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in @@ -336,6 +348,15 @@ inside nested parentheses. They are: :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` does not touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s). +``$`` + :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` only: + Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are + keyword-only. Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional + arguments, so ``|`` must always be specified before ``$`` in the format + string. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + ``:`` The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is used as the function name in error messages (the "associated value" of the exception that diff --git a/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst b/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst index d98ece3..d636935 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst @@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ Buffer Protocol .. sectionauthor:: Greg Stein <gstein@lyra.org> .. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson +.. sectionauthor:: Stefan Krah .. index:: @@ -20,7 +21,7 @@ as image processing or numeric analysis. While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the common characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer. It is -then desireable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and +then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and without intermediate copying. Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the *buffer @@ -60,8 +61,10 @@ isn't needed anymore. Failure to do so could lead to various issues such as resource leaks. -The buffer structure -==================== +.. _buffer-structure: + +Buffer structure +================ Buffer structures (or simply "buffers") are useful as a way to expose the binary data from another object to the Python programmer. They can also be @@ -78,249 +81,411 @@ allows them to be created and copied very simply. When a generic wrapper around a buffer is needed, a :ref:`memoryview <memoryview-objects>` object can be created. +For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see +:ref:`Buffer Object Structures <buffer-structs>`. For obtaining +a buffer, see :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`. .. c:type:: Py_buffer - .. c:member:: void *buf + .. c:member:: void \*obj + + A new reference to the exporting object. The reference is owned by + the consumer and automatically decremented and set to *NULL* by + :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`. The field is the equivalent of the return + value of any standard C-API function. + + As a special case, for *temporary* buffers that are wrapped by + :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromBuffer` or :c:func:`PyBuffer_FillInfo` + this field is *NULL*. In general, exporting objects MUST NOT + use this scheme. - A pointer to the start of the memory for the object. + .. c:member:: void \*buf + + A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by the buffer + fields. This can be any location within the underlying physical memory + block of the exporter. For example, with negative :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` + the value may point to the end of the memory block. + + For contiguous arrays, the value points to the beginning of the memory + block. .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t len - :noindex: - The total length of the memory in bytes. + ``product(shape) * itemsize``. For contiguous arrays, this is the length + of the underlying memory block. For non-contiguous arrays, it is the length + that the logical structure would have if it were copied to a contiguous + representation. + + Accessing ``((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]`` is only valid + if the buffer has been obtained by a request that guarantees contiguity. In + most cases such a request will be :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` or :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE`. .. c:member:: int readonly - An indicator of whether the buffer is read only. + An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only. This field is controlled + by the :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` flag. + + .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t itemsize + + Item size in bytes of a single element. Same as the value of :func:`struct.calcsize` + called on non-NULL :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format` values. + + Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without the + :c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` flag, :c:member:`~Py_Buffer.format` will + be set to *NULL*, but :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` still has + the value for the original format. + + If :c:member:`~Py_Buffer.shape` is present, the equality + ``product(shape) * itemsize == len`` still holds and the consumer + can use :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` to navigate the buffer. + + If :c:member:`~Py_Buffer.shape` is *NULL* as a result of a :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` + or a :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` request, the consumer must disregard + :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` and assume ``itemsize == 1``. - .. c:member:: const char *format - :noindex: + .. c:member:: const char \*format - A *NULL* terminated string in :mod:`struct` module style syntax giving - the contents of the elements available through the buffer. If this is - *NULL*, ``"B"`` (unsigned bytes) is assumed. + A *NUL* terminated string in :mod:`struct` module style syntax describing + the contents of a single item. If this is *NULL*, ``"B"`` (unsigned bytes) + is assumed. + + This field is controlled by the :c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` flag. .. c:member:: int ndim - The number of dimensions the memory represents as a multi-dimensional - array. If it is 0, :c:data:`strides` and :c:data:`suboffsets` must be - *NULL*. - - .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t *shape - - An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`\s the length of :c:data:`ndim` giving the - shape of the memory as a multi-dimensional array. Note that - ``((*shape)[0] * ... * (*shape)[ndims-1])*itemsize`` should be equal to - :c:data:`len`. - - .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t *strides - - An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`\s the length of :c:data:`ndim` giving the - number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each dimension. - - .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t *suboffsets - - An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`\s the length of :c:data:`ndim`. If these - suboffset numbers are greater than or equal to 0, then the value stored - along the indicated dimension is a pointer and the suboffset value - dictates how many bytes to add to the pointer after de-referencing. A - suboffset value that it negative indicates that no de-referencing should - occur (striding in a contiguous memory block). - - Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array - pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-NULL strides - and suboffsets:: - - void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides, - Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) { - char *pointer = (char*)buf; - int i; - for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) { - pointer += strides[i] * indices[i]; - if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) { - pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i]; - } - } - return (void*)pointer; - } + The number of dimensions the memory represents as an n-dimensional array. + If it is 0, :c:member:`~Py_Buffer.buf` points to a single item representing + a scalar. In this case, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` + and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.suboffsets` MUST be *NULL*. + The macro :c:macro:`PyBUF_MAX_NDIM` limits the maximum number of dimensions + to 64. Exporters MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional + buffers SHOULD be able to handle up to :c:macro:`PyBUF_MAX_NDIM` dimensions. - .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t itemsize + .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*shape + + An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim` + indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array. Note that + ``shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize`` MUST be equal to + :c:member:`~Py_buffer.len`. + + Shape values are restricted to ``shape[n] >= 0``. The case + ``shape[n] == 0`` requires special attention. See `complex arrays`_ + for further information. + + The shape array is read-only for the consumer. + + .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*strides + + An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim` + giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each + dimension. + + Stride values can be any integer. For regular arrays, strides are + usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle the case + ``strides[n] <= 0``. See `complex arrays`_ for further information. + + The strides array is read-only for the consumer. + + .. c:member:: Py_ssize_t \*suboffsets + + An array of :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` of length :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`. + If ``suboffsets[n] >= 0``, the values stored along the nth dimension are + pointers and the suboffset value dictates how many bytes to add to each + pointer after de-referencing. A suboffset value that is negative + indicates that no de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous + memory block). - This is a storage for the itemsize (in bytes) of each element of the - shared memory. It is technically un-necessary as it can be obtained - using :c:func:`PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat`, however an exporter may know - this information without parsing the format string and it is necessary - to know the itemsize for proper interpretation of striding. Therefore, - storing it is more convenient and faster. + This type of array representation is used by the Python Imaging Library + (PIL). See `complex arrays`_ for further information how to access elements + of such an array. - .. c:member:: void *internal + The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer. + + .. c:member:: void \*internal This is for use internally by the exporting object. For example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter and used to store flags about whether or not the shape, strides, and suboffsets arrays must be - freed when the buffer is released. The consumer should never alter this + freed when the buffer is released. The consumer MUST NOT alter this value. +.. _buffer-request-types: -Buffer-related functions -======================== +Buffer request types +==================== +Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting +object via :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`. Since the complexity of the logical +structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses the *flags* +argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle. -.. c:function:: int PyObject_CheckBuffer(PyObject *obj) +All :c:data:`Py_buffer` fields are unambiguously defined by the request +type. + +request-independent fields +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +The following fields are not influenced by *flags* and must always be filled in +with the correct values: :c:member:`~Py_buffer.obj`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf`, +:c:member:`~Py_buffer.len`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`. - Return 1 if *obj* supports the buffer interface otherwise 0. When 1 is - returned, it doesn't guarantee that :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` will - succeed. +readonly, format +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -.. c:function:: int PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags) + .. c:macro:: PyBUF_WRITABLE - Export a view over some internal data from the target object *obj*. - *obj* must not be NULL, and *view* must point to an existing - :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure allocated by the caller (most uses of - this function will simply declare a local variable of type - :c:type:`Py_buffer`). The *flags* argument is a bit field indicating - what kind of buffer is requested. The buffer interface allows - for complicated memory layout possibilities; however, some callers - won't want to handle all the complexity and instead request a simple - view of the target object (using :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` for a read-only - view and :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` for a read-write view). + Controls the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.readonly` field. If set, the exporter + MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the + exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice + MUST be consistent for all consumers. - Some exporters may not be able to share memory in every possible way and - may need to raise errors to signal to some consumers that something is - just not possible. These errors should be a :exc:`BufferError` unless - there is another error that is actually causing the problem. The - exporter can use flags information to simplify how much of the - :c:data:`Py_buffer` structure is filled in with non-default values and/or - raise an error if the object can't support a simpler view of its memory. + .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FORMAT - On success, 0 is returned and the *view* structure is filled with useful - values. On error, -1 is returned and an exception is raised; the *view* - is left in an undefined state. + Controls the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format` field. If set, this field MUST + be filled in correctly. Otherwise, this field MUST be *NULL*. - The following are the possible values to the *flags* arguments. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_SIMPLE +:c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` can be \|'d to any of the flags in the next section. +Since :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` is defined as 0, :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` +can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer. - This is the default flag. The returned buffer exposes a read-only - memory area. The format of data is assumed to be raw unsigned bytes, - without any particular structure. This is a "stand-alone" flag - constant. It never needs to be '|'d to the others. The exporter will - raise an error if it cannot provide such a contiguous buffer of bytes. +:c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` can be \|'d to any of the flags except :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`. +The latter already implies format ``B`` (unsigned bytes). - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_WRITABLE - Like :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`, but the returned buffer is writable. If - the exporter doesn't support writable buffers, an error is raised. +shape, strides, suboffsets +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDES +The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed +in decreasing order of complexity. Note that each flag contains all bits +of the flags below it. - This implies :c:macro:`PyBUF_ND`. The returned buffer must provide - strides information (i.e. the strides cannot be NULL). This would be - used when the consumer can handle strided, discontiguous arrays. - Handling strides automatically assumes you can handle shape. The - exporter can raise an error if a strided representation of the data is - not possible (i.e. without the suboffsets). - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ND ++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ +| Request | shape | strides | suboffsets | ++=============================+=======+=========+============+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_INDIRECT | yes | yes | if needed | ++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDES | yes | yes | NULL | ++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ND | yes | NULL | NULL | ++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_SIMPLE | NULL | NULL | NULL | ++-----------------------------+-------+---------+------------+ - The returned buffer must provide shape information. The memory will be - assumed C-style contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest). The - exporter may raise an error if it cannot provide this kind of - contiguous buffer. If this is not given then shape will be *NULL*. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS - PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS - PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS +contiguity requests +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - These flags indicate that the contiguity returned buffer must be - respectively, C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest), Fortran - contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) or either one. All of - these flags imply :c:macro:`PyBUF_STRIDES` and guarantee that the - strides buffer info structure will be filled in correctly. +C or Fortran contiguity can be explicitly requested, with and without stride +information. Without stride information, the buffer must be C-contiguous. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_INDIRECT ++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+ +| Request | shape | strides | suboffsets | contig | ++===================================+=======+=========+============+========+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS | yes | yes | NULL | C | ++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS | yes | yes | NULL | F | ++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS | yes | yes | NULL | C or F | ++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_ND | yes | NULL | NULL | C | ++-----------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+ - This flag indicates the returned buffer must have suboffsets - information (which can be NULL if no suboffsets are needed). This can - be used when the consumer can handle indirect array referencing implied - by these suboffsets. This implies :c:macro:`PyBUF_STRIDES`. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FORMAT +compound requests +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - The returned buffer must have true format information if this flag is - provided. This would be used when the consumer is going to be checking - for what 'kind' of data is actually stored. An exporter should always - be able to provide this information if requested. If format is not - explicitly requested then the format must be returned as *NULL* (which - means ``'B'``, or unsigned bytes). +All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags in +the previous section. For convenience, the buffer protocol provides frequently +used combinations as single flags. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED +In the following table *U* stands for undefined contiguity. The consumer would +have to call :c:func:`PyBuffer_IsContiguous` to determine contiguity. - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_STRIDES | PyBUF_WRITABLE)``. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_STRIDES)``. ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| Request | shape | strides | suboffsets | contig | readonly | format | ++===============================+=======+=========+============+========+==========+========+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL | yes | yes | if needed | U | 0 | yes | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL_RO | yes | yes | if needed | U | 1 or 0 | yes | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS | yes | yes | NULL | U | 0 | yes | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO | yes | yes | NULL | U | 1 or 0 | yes | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED | yes | yes | NULL | U | 0 | NULL | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO | yes | yes | NULL | U | 1 or 0 | NULL | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG | yes | NULL | NULL | C | 0 | NULL | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ +| .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO | yes | NULL | NULL | C | 1 or 0 | NULL | ++-------------------------------+-------+---------+------------+--------+----------+--------+ - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_STRIDES | PyBUF_FORMAT | - PyBUF_WRITABLE)``. +Complex arrays +============== - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO +NumPy-style: shape and strides +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`, +:c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`. + +If ``ndim == 0``, the memory location pointed to by :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf` is +interpreted as a scalar of size :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`. In that case, +both :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape` and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` are *NULL*. + +If :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides` is *NULL*, the array is interpreted as +a standard n-dimensional C-array. Otherwise, the consumer must access an +n-dimensional array as follows: + + ``ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1]`` + ``item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);`` + + +As noted above, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf` can point to any location within +the actual memory block. An exporter can check the validity of a buffer with +this function: + +.. code-block:: python + + def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset): + """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within + the bounds of the allocated memory: + char *mem: start of the physical memory block + memlen: length of the physical memory block + offset: (char *)buf - mem + """ + if offset % itemsize: + return False + if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen: + return False + if any(v % itemsize for v in strides): + return False + + if ndim <= 0: + return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides + if 0 in shape: + return True + + imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim) + if strides[j] <= 0) + imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim) + if strides[j] > 0) + + return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen + + +PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers +that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a dimension. +For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ``char v[2][2][3]`` can +also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2 two-dimensional arrays: +``char (*v[2])[2][3]``. In suboffsets representation, those two pointers +can be embedded at the start of :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf`, pointing +to two ``char x[2][3]`` arrays that can be located anywhere in memory. + + +Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array +pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-NULL strides +and suboffsets:: + + void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides, + Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) { + char *pointer = (char*)buf; + int i; + for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) { + pointer += strides[i] * indices[i]; + if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) { + pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i]; + } + } + return (void*)pointer; + } - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_STRIDES | PyBUF_FORMAT)``. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL +Buffer-related functions +======================== - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_INDIRECT | PyBUF_FORMAT | - PyBUF_WRITABLE)``. +.. c:function:: int PyObject_CheckBuffer(PyObject *obj) - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_FULL_RO + Return 1 if *obj* supports the buffer interface otherwise 0. When 1 is + returned, it doesn't guarantee that :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` will + succeed. - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_INDIRECT | PyBUF_FORMAT)``. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG +.. c:function:: int PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags) - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_ND | PyBUF_WRITABLE)``. + Send a request to *exporter* to fill in *view* as specified by *flags*. + If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST raise + :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`, set :c:member:`view->obj` to *NULL* and + return -1. - .. c:macro:: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO + On success, fill in *view*, set :c:member:`view->obj` to a new reference + to *exporter* and return 0. In the case of chained buffer providers + that redirect requests to a single object, :c:member:`view->obj` MAY + refer to this object instead of *exporter* (See :ref:`Buffer Object Structures <buffer-structs>`). - This is equivalent to ``(PyBUF_ND)``. + Successful calls to :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` must be paired with calls + to :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`, similar to :c:func:`malloc` and :c:func:`free`. + Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer, :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` + must be called exactly once. .. c:function:: void PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view) - Release the buffer *view*. This should be called when the buffer is no - longer being used as it may free memory from it. + Release the buffer *view* and decrement the reference count for + :c:member:`view->obj`. This function MUST be called when the buffer + is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur. + + It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not obtained via + :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`. .. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(const char *) - Return the implied :c:data:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` from the struct-stype - :c:data:`~Py_buffer.format`. + Return the implied :c:data:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` from :c:data:`~Py_buffer.format`. + This function is not yet implemented. -.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous(Py_buffer *view, char fortran) +.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous(Py_buffer *view, char order) - Return 1 if the memory defined by the *view* is C-style (*fortran* is - ``'C'``) or Fortran-style (*fortran* is ``'F'``) contiguous or either one - (*fortran* is ``'A'``). Return 0 otherwise. + Return 1 if the memory defined by the *view* is C-style (*order* is + ``'C'``) or Fortran-style (*order* is ``'F'``) contiguous or either one + (*order* is ``'A'``). Return 0 otherwise. -.. c:function:: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(int ndim, Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, Py_ssize_t itemsize, char fortran) +.. c:function:: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(int ndim, Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, Py_ssize_t itemsize, char order) Fill the *strides* array with byte-strides of a contiguous (C-style if - *fortran* is ``'C'`` or Fortran-style if *fortran* is ``'F'``) array of the + *order* is ``'C'`` or Fortran-style if *order* is ``'F'``) array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per element. -.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_FillInfo(Py_buffer *view, PyObject *obj, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int infoflags) +.. c:function:: int PyBuffer_FillInfo(Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags) + + Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose *buf* of size *len* + with writability set according to *readonly*. *buf* is interpreted as a sequence + of unsigned bytes. + + The *flags* argument indicates the request type. This function always fills in + *view* as specified by flags, unless *buf* has been designated as read-only + and :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` is set in *flags*. + + On success, set :c:member:`view->obj` to a new reference to *exporter* and + return 0. Otherwise, raise :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`, set + :c:member:`view->obj` to *NULL* and return -1; + + If this function is used as part of a :ref:`getbufferproc <buffer-structs>`, + *exporter* MUST be set to the exporting object. Otherwise, *exporter* MUST + be NULL. + - Fill in a buffer-info structure, *view*, correctly for an exporter that can - only share a contiguous chunk of memory of "unsigned bytes" of the given - length. Return 0 on success and -1 (with raising an error) on error. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/code.rst b/Doc/c-api/code.rst index 6932bb1..57e8072 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/code.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/code.rst @@ -31,11 +31,11 @@ bound into a function. Return true if *co* is a :class:`code` object -.. c:function:: int PyCode_GetNumFree(PyObject *co) +.. c:function:: int PyCode_GetNumFree(PyCodeObject *co) Return the number of free variables in *co*. -.. c:function:: PyCodeObject *PyCode_New(int argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, int firstlineno, PyObject *lnotab) +.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyCode_New(int argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, int firstlineno, PyObject *lnotab) Return a new code object. If you need a dummy code object to create a frame, use :c:func:`PyCode_NewEmpty` instead. Calling @@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ bound into a function. version since the definition of the bytecode changes often. -.. c:function:: int PyCode_NewEmpty(const char *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno) +.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyCode_NewEmpty(const char *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno) Return a new empty code object with the specified filename, function name, and first line number. It is illegal to diff --git a/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst b/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst index dfc0a3a..9578f98 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst @@ -119,13 +119,13 @@ The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions. .. versionadded:: 3.1 -.. c:function:: char* PyOS_stricmp(char *s1, char *s2) +.. c:function:: int PyOS_stricmp(char *s1, char *s2) Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost identically to :c:func:`strcmp` except that it ignores the case. -.. c:function:: char* PyOS_strnicmp(char *s1, char *s2, Py_ssize_t size) +.. c:function:: int PyOS_strnicmp(char *s1, char *s2, Py_ssize_t size) Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost identically to :c:func:`strncmp` except that it ignores the case. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst b/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst index fcd1395..39542bd 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst @@ -170,6 +170,31 @@ and the type is not checked: Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999. +Macros to extract fields from time delta objects. The argument must be an +instance of :c:data:`PyDateTime_Delta`, including subclasses. The argument must +not be *NULL*, and the type is not checked: + +.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS(PyDateTime_Delta *o) + + Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS(PyDateTime_Delta *o) + + Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_Delta *o) + + Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API: .. c:function:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args) diff --git a/Doc/c-api/dict.rst b/Doc/c-api/dict.rst index 6df84e0..6bacc32 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/dict.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/dict.rst @@ -36,11 +36,11 @@ Dictionary Objects Return a new empty dictionary, or *NULL* on failure. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDictProxy_New(PyObject *dict) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDictProxy_New(PyObject *mapping) - Return a proxy object for a mapping which enforces read-only behavior. - This is normally used to create a proxy to prevent modification of the - dictionary for non-dynamic class types. + Return a :class:`types.MappingProxyType` object for a mapping which + enforces read-only behavior. This is normally used to create a view to + prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types. .. c:function:: void PyDict_Clear(PyObject *p) @@ -209,3 +209,10 @@ Dictionary Objects for key, value in seq2: if override or key not in a: a[key] = value + + +.. c:function:: int PyDict_ClearFreeList() + + Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst b/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst index 6f13c80..9a66b7f 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst @@ -129,6 +129,41 @@ in various ways. There is a separate error indicator for each thread. exception state. +.. c:function:: void PyErr_GetExcInfo(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback) + + Retrieve the exception info, as known from ``sys.exc_info()``. This refers + to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was + freshly raised. Returns new references for the three objects, any of which + may be *NULL*. Does not modify the exception info state. + + .. note:: + + This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. + Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception + state temporarily. Use :c:func:`PyErr_SetExcInfo` to restore or clear the + exception state. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetExcInfo(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback) + + Set the exception info, as known from ``sys.exc_info()``. This refers + to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was + freshly raised. This function steals the references of the arguments. + To clear the exception state, pass *NULL* for all three arguments. + For general rules about the three arguments, see :c:func:`PyErr_Restore`. + + .. note:: + + This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. + Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception + state temporarily. Use :c:func:`PyErr_GetExcInfo` to read the exception + state. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: void PyErr_SetString(PyObject *type, const char *message) This is the most common way to set the error indicator. The first argument @@ -230,6 +265,16 @@ in various ways. There is a separate error indicator for each thread. parameter specifying the exception type to be raised. Availability: Windows. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyErr_SetImportError(PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path) + + This is a convenience function to raise :exc:`ImportError`. *msg* will be + set as the exception's message string. *name* and *path*, both of which can + be ``NULL``, will be set as the :exc:`ImportError`'s respective ``name`` + and ``path`` attributes. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(char *filename, int lineno, int col_offset) Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception. If the @@ -238,7 +283,7 @@ in various ways. There is a separate error indicator for each thread. is a :exc:`SyntaxError`. *filename* is decoded from the filesystem encoding (:func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding`). -.. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionadded:: 3.2 .. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation(char *filename, int lineno) @@ -311,6 +356,7 @@ in various ways. There is a separate error indicator for each thread. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. c:function:: int PyErr_CheckSignals() .. index:: @@ -421,17 +467,18 @@ Exception Objects .. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetCause(PyObject *ex) - Return the cause (another exception instance set by ``raise ... from ...``) - associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python - through :attr:`__cause__`. If there is no cause associated, this returns - *NULL*. + Return the cause (either an exception instance, or :const:`None`, + set by ``raise ... from ...``) associated with the exception as a new + reference, as accessible from Python through :attr:`__cause__`. .. c:function:: void PyException_SetCause(PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx) Set the cause associated with the exception to *ctx*. Use *NULL* to clear - it. There is no type check to make sure that *ctx* is an exception instance. - This steals a reference to *ctx*. + it. There is no type check to make sure that *ctx* is either an exception + instance or :const:`None`. This steals a reference to *ctx*. + + :attr:`__suppress_context__` is implicitly set to ``True`` by this function. .. _unicodeexceptions: @@ -525,7 +572,7 @@ recursion depth automatically). Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed. - If :const:`USE_STACKCHECK` is defined, this function checks if the the OS + If :const:`USE_STACKCHECK` is defined, this function checks if the OS stack overflowed using :c:func:`PyOS_CheckStack`. In this is the case, it sets a :exc:`MemoryError` and returns a nonzero value. @@ -582,65 +629,116 @@ All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose names are :c:type:`PyObject\*`; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all the variables: -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| C Name | Python Name | Notes | -+=====================================+============================+==========+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_BaseException` | :exc:`BaseException` | \(1) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_Exception` | :exc:`Exception` | \(1) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_ArithmeticError` | :exc:`ArithmeticError` | \(1) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_LookupError` | :exc:`LookupError` | \(1) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_AssertionError` | :exc:`AssertionError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_AttributeError` | :exc:`AttributeError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_EOFError` | :exc:`EOFError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_EnvironmentError` | :exc:`EnvironmentError` | \(1) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_FloatingPointError` | :exc:`FloatingPointError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_IOError` | :exc:`IOError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportError` | :exc:`ImportError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_IndexError` | :exc:`IndexError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyError` | :exc:`KeyError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt` | :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_MemoryError` | :exc:`MemoryError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_NameError` | :exc:`NameError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_NotImplementedError` | :exc:`NotImplementedError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_OSError` | :exc:`OSError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_OverflowError` | :exc:`OverflowError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_ReferenceError` | :exc:`ReferenceError` | \(2) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeError` | :exc:`RuntimeError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxError` | :exc:`SyntaxError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemError` | :exc:`SystemError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemExit` | :exc:`SystemExit` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError` | :exc:`TypeError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_ValueError` | :exc:`ValueError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_WindowsError` | :exc:`WindowsError` | \(3) | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ -| :c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError` | :exc:`ZeroDivisionError` | | -+-------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------+ ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| C Name | Python Name | Notes | ++=========================================+=================================+==========+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_BaseException` | :exc:`BaseException` | \(1) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_Exception` | :exc:`Exception` | \(1) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ArithmeticError` | :exc:`ArithmeticError` | \(1) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_LookupError` | :exc:`LookupError` | \(1) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_AssertionError` | :exc:`AssertionError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_AttributeError` | :exc:`AttributeError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError` | :exc:`BlockingIOError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError` | :exc:`BrokenPipeError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ChildProcessError` | :exc:`ChildProcessError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionError` | :exc:`ConnectionError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError` | :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError` | :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionResetError` | :exc:`ConnectionResetError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_FileExistsError` | :exc:`FileExistsError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_FileNotFoundError` | :exc:`FileNotFoundError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_EOFError` | :exc:`EOFError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_FloatingPointError` | :exc:`FloatingPointError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportError` | :exc:`ImportError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_IndexError` | :exc:`IndexError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_InterruptedError` | :exc:`InterruptedError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_IsADirectoryError` | :exc:`IsADirectoryError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyError` | :exc:`KeyError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt` | :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_MemoryError` | :exc:`MemoryError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_NameError` | :exc:`NameError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_NotADirectoryError` | :exc:`NotADirectoryError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_NotImplementedError` | :exc:`NotImplementedError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_OSError` | :exc:`OSError` | \(1) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_OverflowError` | :exc:`OverflowError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_PermissionError` | :exc:`PermissionError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ProcessLookupError` | :exc:`ProcessLookupError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ReferenceError` | :exc:`ReferenceError` | \(2) | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeError` | :exc:`RuntimeError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxError` | :exc:`SyntaxError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemError` | :exc:`SystemError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_TimeoutError` | :exc:`TimeoutError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemExit` | :exc:`SystemExit` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError` | :exc:`TypeError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ValueError` | :exc:`ValueError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError` | :exc:`ZeroDivisionError` | | ++-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+ + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + :c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError`, :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_ChildProcessError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionResetError`, :c:data:`PyExc_FileExistsError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_FileNotFoundError`, :c:data:`PyExc_InterruptedError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_IsADirectoryError`, :c:data:`PyExc_NotADirectoryError`, + :c:data:`PyExc_PermissionError`, :c:data:`PyExc_ProcessLookupError` + and :c:data:`PyExc_TimeoutError` were introduced following :pep:`3151`. + + +These are compatibility aliases to :c:data:`PyExc_OSError`: + ++-------------------------------------+----------+ +| C Name | Notes | ++=====================================+==========+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_EnvironmentError` | | ++-------------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_IOError` | | ++-------------------------------------+----------+ +| :c:data:`PyExc_WindowsError` | \(3) | ++-------------------------------------+----------+ + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + These aliases used to be separate exception types. + .. index:: single: PyExc_BaseException @@ -649,28 +747,42 @@ the variables: single: PyExc_LookupError single: PyExc_AssertionError single: PyExc_AttributeError + single: PyExc_BlockingIOError + single: PyExc_BrokenPipeError + single: PyExc_ConnectionError + single: PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError + single: PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError + single: PyExc_ConnectionResetError single: PyExc_EOFError - single: PyExc_EnvironmentError + single: PyExc_FileExistsError + single: PyExc_FileNotFoundError single: PyExc_FloatingPointError - single: PyExc_IOError single: PyExc_ImportError single: PyExc_IndexError + single: PyExc_InterruptedError + single: PyExc_IsADirectoryError single: PyExc_KeyError single: PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt single: PyExc_MemoryError single: PyExc_NameError + single: PyExc_NotADirectoryError single: PyExc_NotImplementedError single: PyExc_OSError single: PyExc_OverflowError + single: PyExc_PermissionError + single: PyExc_ProcessLookupError single: PyExc_ReferenceError single: PyExc_RuntimeError single: PyExc_SyntaxError single: PyExc_SystemError single: PyExc_SystemExit + single: PyExc_TimeoutError single: PyExc_TypeError single: PyExc_ValueError - single: PyExc_WindowsError single: PyExc_ZeroDivisionError + single: PyExc_EnvironmentError + single: PyExc_IOError + single: PyExc_WindowsError Notes: diff --git a/Doc/c-api/function.rst b/Doc/c-api/function.rst index 31805fd..ad98322 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/function.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/function.rst @@ -38,6 +38,16 @@ There are a few functions specific to Python functions. object, the argument defaults and closure are set to *NULL*. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_NewWithQualName(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname) + + As :c:func:`PyFunction_New`, but also allows to set the function object's + ``__qualname__`` attribute. *qualname* should be a unicode object or NULL; + if NULL, the ``__qualname__`` attribute is set to the same value as its + ``__name__`` attribute. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetCode(PyObject *op) Return the code object associated with the function object *op*. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/import.rst b/Doc/c-api/import.rst index cf48363..c3c8f42 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/import.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/import.rst @@ -30,13 +30,13 @@ Importing Modules .. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(const char *name) - This version of :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule` does not block. It's intended - to be used in C functions that import other modules to execute a function. - The import may block if another thread holds the import lock. The function - :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock` never blocks. It first tries to fetch - the module from sys.modules and falls back to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule` - unless the lock is held, in which case the function will raise an - :exc:`ImportError`. + This function is a deprecated alias of :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to fail immediately when the import lock was held + by another thread. In Python 3.3 though, the locking scheme switched + to per-module locks for most purposes, so this function's special + behaviour isn't needed anymore. .. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleEx(char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist) @@ -44,8 +44,7 @@ Importing Modules .. index:: builtin: __import__ Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python - function :func:`__import__`, as the standard :func:`__import__` function calls - this function directly. + function :func:`__import__`. The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package, or *NULL* with an exception set on failure. Like for @@ -57,7 +56,7 @@ Importing Modules :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level) Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python function :func:`__import__`, as the standard :func:`__import__` function calls @@ -68,6 +67,16 @@ Importing Modules the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty *fromlist* was given. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject`, but the name is an + UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Negative values for **level** are no longer accepted. .. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_Import(PyObject *name) @@ -86,7 +95,7 @@ Importing Modules an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this case). -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_AddModule(const char *name) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_AddModuleObject(PyObject *name) Return the module object corresponding to a module name. The *name* argument may be of the form ``package.module``. First check the modules dictionary if @@ -100,6 +109,14 @@ Importing Modules or one of its variants to import a module. Package structures implied by a dotted name for *name* are not created if not already present. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_AddModule(const char *name) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_AddModuleObject`, but the name is a UTF-8 + encoded string instead of a Unicode object. + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModule(char *name, PyObject *co) @@ -136,25 +153,43 @@ Importing Modules See also :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames`. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(char *name, PyObject *co, char *pathname, char *cpathname) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject *cpathname) Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx`, but the :attr:`__cached__` attribute of the module object is set to *cpathname* if it is non-``NULL``. Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(char *name, PyObject *co, char *pathname, char *cpathname) + + Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject`, but *name*, *pathname* and + *cpathname* are UTF-8 encoded strings. Attempts are also made to figure out + what the value for *pathname* should be from *cpathname* if the former is + set to ``NULL``. + .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Uses :func:`imp.source_from_cache()` in calculating the source path if + only the bytecode path is provided. + .. c:function:: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber() Return the magic number for Python bytecode files (a.k.a. :file:`.pyc` and :file:`.pyo` files). The magic number should be present in the first four bytes - of the bytecode file, in little-endian byte order. + of the bytecode file, in little-endian byte order. Returns -1 on error. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Return value of -1 upon failure. .. c:function:: const char * PyImport_GetMagicTag() Return the magic tag string for :pep:`3147` format Python bytecode file - names. + names. Keep in mind that the value at ``sys.implementation.cache_tag`` is + authoritative and should be used instead of this function. .. versionadded:: 3.2 @@ -200,7 +235,7 @@ Importing Modules For internal use only. -.. c:function:: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(char *name) +.. c:function:: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(PyObject *name) Load a frozen module named *name*. Return ``1`` for success, ``0`` if the module is not found, and ``-1`` with an exception set if the initialization @@ -208,6 +243,14 @@ Importing Modules :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`. (Note the misnomer --- this function would reload the module if it was already imported.) + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(char *name) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject`, but the name is a + UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object. + .. c:type:: struct _frozen @@ -247,13 +290,13 @@ Importing Modules Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in modules. Each of these structures gives the name and initialization function for a module built - into the interpreter. Programs which embed Python may use an array of these - structures in conjunction with :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab` to provide - additional built-in modules. The structure is defined in - :file:`Include/import.h` as:: + into the interpreter. The name is an ASCII encoded string. Programs which + embed Python may use an array of these structures in conjunction with + :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab` to provide additional built-in modules. + The structure is defined in :file:`Include/import.h` as:: struct _inittab { - char *name; + char *name; /* ASCII encoded string */ PyObject* (*initfunc)(void); }; diff --git a/Doc/c-api/index.rst b/Doc/c-api/index.rst index 12a1ec7..a0cb6e5 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/index.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/index.rst @@ -25,3 +25,4 @@ document the API functions in detail. init.rst memory.rst objimpl.rst + stable.rst diff --git a/Doc/c-api/init.rst b/Doc/c-api/init.rst index 7507e3b..95ff4ee 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/init.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/init.rst @@ -646,7 +646,7 @@ with sub-interpreters: :c:func:`PyGILState_Release` on the same thread. -.. c:function:: PyThreadState PyGILState_GetThisThreadState() +.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState() Get the current thread state for this thread. May return ``NULL`` if no GILState API has been used on the current thread. Note that the main thread diff --git a/Doc/c-api/list.rst b/Doc/c-api/list.rst index feb9015..5b263a7 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/list.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/list.rst @@ -142,3 +142,10 @@ List Objects Return a new tuple object containing the contents of *list*; equivalent to ``tuple(list)``. + + +.. c:function:: int PyList_ClearFreeList() + + Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/c-api/long.rst b/Doc/c-api/long.rst index e2f58ad..365abd7 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/long.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/long.rst @@ -100,6 +100,20 @@ All integers are implemented as "long" integer objects of arbitrary size. string is first encoded to a byte string using :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal` and then converted using :c:func:`PyLong_FromString`. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyLong_FromUnicodeObject`. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(PyObject *u, int base) + + Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the string *u* to a Python integer + value. The Unicode string is first encoded to a byte string using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal` and then converted using + :c:func:`PyLong_FromString`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromVoidPtr(void *p) diff --git a/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst b/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst index 6b49cdf..5e50977 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst @@ -17,16 +17,21 @@ any other object. Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer interface. If *obj* supports writable buffer exports, the memoryview object will be - readable and writable, otherwise it will be read-only. + read/write, otherwise it may be either read-only or read/write at the + discretion of the exporter. +.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromMemory(char *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags) + + Create a memoryview object using *mem* as the underlying buffer. + *flags* can be one of :c:macro:`PyBUF_READ` or :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITE`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(Py_buffer *view) Create a memoryview object wrapping the given buffer structure *view*. - The memoryview object then owns the buffer represented by *view*, which - means you shouldn't try to call :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` yourself: it - will be done on deallocation of the memoryview object. - + For simple byte buffers, :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory` is the preferred + function. .. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order) @@ -43,10 +48,16 @@ any other object. currently allowed to create subclasses of :class:`memoryview`. -.. c:function:: Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER(PyObject *obj) +.. c:function:: Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER(PyObject *mview) + + Return a pointer to the memoryview's private copy of the exporter's buffer. + *mview* **must** be a memoryview instance; this macro doesn't check its type, + you must do it yourself or you will risk crashes. + +.. c:function:: Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE(PyObject *mview) - Return a pointer to the buffer structure wrapped by the given - memoryview object. The object **must** be a memoryview instance; - this macro doesn't check its type, you must do it yourself or you - will risk crashes. + Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview is based + on or *NULL* if the memoryview has been created by one of the functions + :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory` or :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromBuffer`. + *mview* **must** be a memoryview instance. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/module.rst b/Doc/c-api/module.rst index ffd68e3..3be7fe3 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/module.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/module.rst @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. :c:data:`PyModule_Type`. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_New(const char *name) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_NewObject(PyObject *name) .. index:: single: __name__ (module attribute) @@ -40,6 +40,14 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. Only the module's :attr:`__doc__` and :attr:`__name__` attributes are filled in; the caller is responsible for providing a :attr:`__file__` attribute. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_New(const char *name) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyImport_NewObject`, but the name is an UTF-8 encoded + string instead of a Unicode object. + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetDict(PyObject *module) @@ -52,7 +60,7 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. manipulate a module's :attr:`__dict__`. -.. c:function:: char* PyModule_GetName(PyObject *module) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetNameObject(PyObject *module) .. index:: single: __name__ (module attribute) @@ -61,15 +69,13 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. Return *module*'s :attr:`__name__` value. If the module does not provide one, or if it is not a string, :exc:`SystemError` is raised and *NULL* is returned. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 -.. c:function:: char* PyModule_GetFilename(PyObject *module) - Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` but return the filename - encoded to 'utf-8'. +.. c:function:: char* PyModule_GetName(PyObject *module) - .. deprecated:: 3.2 - :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename` raises :c:type:`UnicodeEncodeError` on - unencodable filenames, use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` instead. + Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetNameObject` but return the name encoded to + ``'utf-8'``. .. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetFilenameObject(PyObject *module) @@ -81,11 +87,21 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. Return the name of the file from which *module* was loaded using *module*'s :attr:`__file__` attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a unicode string, raise :exc:`SystemError` and return *NULL*; otherwise return - a reference to a :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject`. + a reference to a Unicode object. .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. c:function:: char* PyModule_GetFilename(PyObject *module) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` but return the filename + encoded to 'utf-8'. + + .. deprecated:: 3.2 + :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename` raises :c:type:`UnicodeEncodeError` on + unencodable filenames, use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` instead. + + .. c:function:: void* PyModule_GetState(PyObject *module) Return the "state" of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory @@ -97,8 +113,28 @@ There are only a few functions special to module objects. Return a pointer to the :c:type:`PyModuleDef` struct from which the module was created, or *NULL* if the module wasn't created with - :c:func:`PyModule_Create`. + :c:func:`PyModule_Create`.i + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyState_FindModule(PyModuleDef *def) + + Returns the module object that was created from *def* for the current interpreter. + This method requires that the module object has been attached to the interpreter state with + :c:func:`PyState_AddModule` beforehand. In case the corresponding module object is not + found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it returns NULL. + +.. c:function:: int PyState_AddModule(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *module) + + Attaches the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state. This allows + the module object to be accessible via + :c:func:`PyState_FindModule`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. c:function:: int PyState_RemoveModule(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *module) + + Removes the module object created from *def* from the interpreter state. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 Initializing C modules ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ diff --git a/Doc/c-api/object.rst b/Doc/c-api/object.rst index d0d45ad..d895547 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/object.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/object.rst @@ -6,6 +6,19 @@ Object Protocol =============== +.. c:var:: PyObject* Py_NotImplemented + + The ``NotImplemented`` singleton, used to signal that an operation is + not implemented for the given type combination. + + +.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED + + Properly handle returning :c:data:`Py_NotImplemented` from within a C + function (that is, increment the reference count of NotImplemented and + return it). + + .. c:function:: int PyObject_Print(PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags) Print an object *o*, on file *fp*. Returns ``-1`` on error. The flags argument @@ -88,6 +101,22 @@ Object Protocol This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``del o.attr_name``. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericGetDict(PyObject *o, void *context) + + A generic implementation for the getter of a ``__dict__`` descriptor. It + creates the dictionary if necessary. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyType_GenericSetDict(PyObject *o, void *context) + + A generic implementation for the setter of a ``__dict__`` descriptor. This + implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_RichCompare(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid) Compare the values of *o1* and *o2* using the operation specified by *opid*, diff --git a/Doc/c-api/set.rst b/Doc/c-api/set.rst index 66b47c4..5f0ef90 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/set.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/set.rst @@ -157,3 +157,10 @@ subtypes but not for instances of :class:`frozenset` or its subtypes. .. c:function:: int PySet_Clear(PyObject *set) Empty an existing set of all elements. + + +.. c:function:: int PySet_ClearFreeList() + + Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/c-api/stable.rst b/Doc/c-api/stable.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2688c1c --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/c-api/stable.rst @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +.. highlightlang:: c + +.. _stable: + +********************************** +Stable Appliction Binary Interface +********************************** + +Traditionally, the C API of Python will change with every release. +Most changes will be source-compatible, typically by only adding API, +rather than changing existing API or removing API (although some +interfaces do get removed after being deprecated first). + +Unfortunately, the API compatibility does not extend to binary +compatibility (the ABI). The reason is primarily the evolution of +struct definitions, where addition of a new field, or changing +the type of a field, might not break the API, but can break the ABI. +As a consequence, extension modules need to be recompiled for +every Python release (although an exception is possible on Unix +when none of the affected interfaces are used). In addition, on +Windows, extension modules link with a specific pythonXY.dll and +need to be recompiled to link with a newer one. + +Since Python 3.2, a subset of the API has been declared to guarantee +a stable ABI. Extension modules wishing to use this API need to define +Py_LIMITED_API. A number of interpreter details then become hidden +from the extension module; in return, a module is built that works +on any 3.x version (x>=2) without recompilation. In some cases, the +stable ABI needs to be extended with new functions. Extensions modules +wishing to use these new APIs need to set Py_LIMITED_API to the +PY_VERSION_HEX value of the minimum Python version they want to +support (e.g. 0x03030000 for Python 3.3). Such modules will work +on all subsequent Python releases, but fail to load (because of +missing symbols) on the older releases. + +As of Python 3.2, the set of functions available to the limited API +is documented in PEP 384. + +.. XXX copy exact list here? Into each functions definition? diff --git a/Doc/c-api/type.rst b/Doc/c-api/type.rst index b3386ea..44c731a 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/type.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/type.rst @@ -51,13 +51,13 @@ Type Objects modification of the attributes or base classes of the type. -.. c:function:: int PyType_HasFeature(PyObject *o, int feature) +.. c:function:: int PyType_HasFeature(PyTypeObject *o, int feature) Return true if the type object *o* sets the feature *feature*. Type features are denoted by single bit flags. -.. c:function:: int PyType_IS_GC(PyObject *o) +.. c:function:: int PyType_IS_GC(PyTypeObject *o) Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this tests the type flag :const:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC`. @@ -70,13 +70,14 @@ Type Objects .. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericAlloc(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t nitems) - XXX: Document. - + Generic handler for the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot of a type object. Use + Python's default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new instance and + initialize all its contents to *NULL*. .. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericNew(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) - XXX: Document. - + Generic handler for the :attr:`tp_new` slot of a type object. Create a + new instance using the type's :attr:`tp_alloc` slot. .. c:function:: int PyType_Ready(PyTypeObject *type) @@ -84,3 +85,15 @@ Type Objects their initialization. This function is responsible for adding inherited slots from a type's base class. Return ``0`` on success, or return ``-1`` and sets an exception on error. + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpec(PyType_Spec *spec) + + Creates and returns a heap type object from the *spec* passed to the function. + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpecWithBases(PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases) + + Creates and returns a heap type object from the *spec*. In addition to that, + the created heap type contains all types contained by the *bases* tuple as base + types. This allows the caller to reference other heap types as base types. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst b/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst index 68ca9ad..ea1a0ad 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst @@ -1198,46 +1198,88 @@ Buffer Object Structures .. sectionauthor:: Greg J. Stein <greg@lyra.org> .. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson +.. sectionauthor:: Stefan Krah +.. c:type:: PyBufferProcs -The :ref:`buffer interface <bufferobjects>` exports a model where an object can expose its internal -data. + This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the + :ref:`Buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`. The protocol defines how + an exporter object can expose its internal data to consumer objects. -If an object does not export the buffer interface, then its :attr:`tp_as_buffer` -member in the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` structure should be *NULL*. Otherwise, the -:attr:`tp_as_buffer` will point to a :c:type:`PyBufferProcs` structure. +.. c:member:: getbufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer + The signature of this function is:: -.. c:type:: PyBufferProcs + int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags); + + Handle a request to *exporter* to fill in *view* as specified by *flags*. + Except for point (3), an implementation of this function MUST take these + steps: + + (1) Check if the request can be met. If not, raise :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError`, + set :c:data:`view->obj` to *NULL* and return -1. + + (2) Fill in the requested fields. + + (3) Increment an internal counter for the number of exports. + + (4) Set :c:data:`view->obj` to *exporter* and increment :c:data:`view->obj`. + + (5) Return 0. + + If *exporter* is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two main + schemes can be used: + + * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and + sets :c:data:`view->obj` to a new reference to itself. + + * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the + tree. Here, :c:data:`view->obj` will be a new reference to the root + object. + + The individual fields of *view* are described in section + :ref:`Buffer structure <buffer-structure>`, the rules how an exporter + must react to specific requests are in section + :ref:`Buffer request types <buffer-request-types>`. + + All memory pointed to in the :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure belongs to + the exporter and must remain valid until there are no consumers left. + :c:member:`~Py_buffer.format`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.shape`, + :c:member:`~Py_buffer.strides`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.suboffsets` + and :c:member:`~Py_buffer.internal` + are read-only for the consumer. + + :c:func:`PyBuffer_FillInfo` provides an easy way of exposing a simple + bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types. + + :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` is the interface for the consumer that + wraps this function. + +.. c:member:: releasebufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer + + The signature of this function is:: + + void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view); - Structure used to hold the function pointers which define an implementation of - the buffer protocol. + Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer. If no resources + need to be released, :c:member:`PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` may be + *NULL*. Otherwise, a standard implementation of this function will take + these optional steps: - .. c:member:: getbufferproc bf_getbuffer + (1) Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports. - This should fill a :c:type:`Py_buffer` with the necessary data for - exporting the type. The signature of :data:`getbufferproc` is ``int - (PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)``. *obj* is the object to - export, *view* is the :c:type:`Py_buffer` struct to fill, and *flags* gives - the conditions the caller wants the memory under. (See - :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer` for all flags.) :c:member:`bf_getbuffer` is - responsible for filling *view* with the appropriate information. - (:c:func:`PyBuffer_FillView` can be used in simple cases.) See - :c:type:`Py_buffer`\s docs for what needs to be filled in. + (2) If the counter is 0, free all memory associated with *view*. + The exporter MUST use the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.internal` field to keep + track of buffer-specific resources. This field is guaranteed to remain + constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer as the + *view* argument. - .. c:member:: releasebufferproc bf_releasebuffer - This should release the resources of the buffer. The signature of - :c:data:`releasebufferproc` is ``void (PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view)``. - If the :c:data:`bf_releasebuffer` function is not provided (i.e. it is - *NULL*), then it does not ever need to be called. + This function MUST NOT decrement :c:data:`view->obj`, since that is + done automatically in :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` (this scheme is + useful for breaking reference cycles). - The exporter of the buffer interface must make sure that any memory - pointed to in the :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure remains valid until - releasebuffer is called. Exporters will need to define a - :c:data:`bf_releasebuffer` function if they can re-allocate their memory, - strides, shape, suboffsets, or format variables which they might share - through the struct bufferinfo. - See :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release`. + :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` is the interface for the consumer that + wraps this function. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst b/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst index d1b57d9..0f7d2bb 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst @@ -6,38 +6,72 @@ Unicode Objects and Codecs -------------------------- .. sectionauthor:: Marc-André Lemburg <mal@lemburg.com> +.. sectionauthor:: Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> Unicode Objects ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +Since the implementation of :pep:`393` in Python 3.3, Unicode objects internally +use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling the complete range +of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient. There are special cases +for strings where all code points are below 128, 256, or 65536; otherwise, code +points must be below 1114112 (which is the full Unicode range). + +:c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` and UTF-8 representations are created on demand and cached +in the Unicode object. The :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation is deprecated +and inefficient; it should be avoided in performance- or memory-sensitive +situations. + +Due to the transition between the old APIs and the new APIs, unicode objects +can internally be in two states depending on how they were created: + +* "canonical" unicode objects are all objects created by a non-deprecated + unicode API. They use the most efficient representation allowed by the + implementation. + +* "legacy" unicode objects have been created through one of the deprecated + APIs (typically :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode`) and only bear the + :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation; you will have to call + :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` on them before calling any other API. + + Unicode Type """""""""""" These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode implementation in Python: +.. c:type:: Py_UCS4 + Py_UCS2 + Py_UCS1 + + These types are typedefs for unsigned integer types wide enough to contain + characters of 32 bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively. When dealing with + single Unicode characters, use :c:type:`Py_UCS4`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. c:type:: Py_UNICODE - This type represents the storage type which is used by Python internally as - basis for holding Unicode ordinals. Python's default builds use a 16-bit type - for :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` and store Unicode values internally as UCS2. It is also - possible to build a UCS4 version of Python (most recent Linux distributions come - with UCS4 builds of Python). These builds then use a 32-bit type for - :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` and store Unicode data internally as UCS4. On platforms - where :c:type:`wchar_t` is available and compatible with the chosen Python - Unicode build variant, :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` is a typedef alias for - :c:type:`wchar_t` to enhance native platform compatibility. On all other - platforms, :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` is a typedef alias for either :c:type:`unsigned - short` (UCS2) or :c:type:`unsigned long` (UCS4). + This is a typedef of :c:type:`wchar_t`, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit type + depending on the platform. -Note that UCS2 and UCS4 Python builds are not binary compatible. Please keep -this in mind when writing extensions or interfaces. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type or a 32-bit type depending on + whether you selected a "narrow" or "wide" Unicode version of Python at + build time. -.. c:type:: PyUnicodeObject +.. c:type:: PyASCIIObject + PyCompactUnicodeObject + PyUnicodeObject - This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python Unicode object. + These subtypes of :c:type:`PyObject` represent a Python Unicode object. In + almost all cases, they shouldn't be used directly, since all API functions + that deal with Unicode objects take and return :c:type:`PyObject` pointers. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type @@ -45,10 +79,10 @@ this in mind when writing extensions or interfaces. This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode type. It is exposed to Python code as ``str``. + The following APIs are really C macros and can be used to do fast checks and to access internal read-only data of Unicode objects: - .. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Check(PyObject *o) Return true if the object *o* is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode @@ -61,28 +95,106 @@ access internal read-only data of Unicode objects: subtype. -.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o) +.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_READY(PyObject *o) - Return the size of the object. *o* has to be a :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject` (not - checked). + Ensure the string object *o* is in the "canonical" representation. This is + required before using any of the access macros described below. + .. XXX expand on when it is not required -.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE(PyObject *o) + Returns 0 on success and -1 with an exception set on failure, which in + particular happens if memory allocation fails. - Return the size of the object's internal buffer in bytes. *o* has to be a - :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked). + .. versionadded:: 3.3 -.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(PyObject *o) +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(PyObject *o) + + Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points. *o* has to be a + Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS1* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o) + Py_UCS2* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o) + Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(PyObject *o) + + Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2 or UCS4 + integer types for direct character access. No checks are performed if the + canonical representation has the correct character size; use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND` to select the right macro. Make sure + :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` has been called before accessing this. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:macro:: PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND + PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND + PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND + PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND + + Return values of the :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND` macro. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_KIND(PyObject *o) + + Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that indicate how many + bytes per character this Unicode object uses to store its data. *o* has to + be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked). + + .. XXX document "0" return value? + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: void* PyUnicode_DATA(PyObject *o) + + Return a void pointer to the raw unicode buffer. *o* has to be a Unicode + object in the "canonical" representation (not checked). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: void PyUnicode_WRITE(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index, \ + Py_UCS4 value) + + Write into a canonical representation *data* (as obtained with + :c:func:`PyUnicode_DATA`). This macro does not do any sanity checks and is + intended for usage in loops. The caller should cache the *kind* value and + *data* pointer as obtained from other macro calls. *index* is the index in + the string (starts at 0) and *value* is the new code point value which should + be written to that location. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index) + + Read a code point from a canonical representation *data* (as obtained with + :c:func:`PyUnicode_DATA`). No checks or ready calls are performed. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t index) + + Read a character from a Unicode object *o*, which must be in the "canonical" + representation. This is less efficient than :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ` if you + do multiple consecutive reads. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 - Return a pointer to the internal :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the object. *o* - has to be a :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked). +.. c:function:: PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(PyObject *o) -.. c:function:: const char* PyUnicode_AS_DATA(PyObject *o) + Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another string + based on *o*, which must be in the "canonical" representation. This is + always an approximation but more efficient than iterating over the string. - Return a pointer to the internal buffer of the object. *o* has to be a - :c:type:`PyUnicodeObject` (not checked). + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. c:function:: int PyUnicode_ClearFreeList() @@ -90,6 +202,46 @@ access internal read-only data of Unicode objects: Clear the free list. Return the total number of freed items. +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o) + + Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation, in + code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units). *o* has to be a + Unicode object (not checked). + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`. + + +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE(PyObject *o) + + Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation in + bytes. *o* has to be a Unicode object (not checked). + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH`. + + +.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(PyObject *o) + const char* PyUnicode_AS_DATA(PyObject *o) + + Return a pointer to a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation of the object. The + ``AS_DATA`` form casts the pointer to :c:type:`const char *`. *o* has to be + a Unicode object (not checked). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This macro is now inefficient -- because in many cases the + :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation does not exist and needs to be created + -- and can fail (return *NULL* with an exception set). Try to port the + code to use the new :c:func:`PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA` macros or use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_WRITE` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ`. + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style Unicode API, please migrate to using the + :c:func:`PyUnicode_nBYTE_DATA` family of macros. + + Unicode Character Properties """""""""""""""""""""""""""" @@ -166,16 +318,25 @@ These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions: Return the character *ch* converted to lower case. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This function uses simple case mappings. + .. c:function:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER(Py_UNICODE ch) Return the character *ch* converted to upper case. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This function uses simple case mappings. + .. c:function:: Py_UNICODE Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE(Py_UNICODE ch) Return the character *ch* converted to title case. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This function uses simple case mappings. + .. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(Py_UNICODE ch) @@ -195,31 +356,66 @@ These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions: possible. This macro does not raise exceptions. -Plain Py_UNICODE -"""""""""""""""" +These APIs can be used to work with surrogates: + +.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(ch) + + Check if *ch* is a surrogate (``0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF``). + +.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(ch) + + Check if *ch* is an high surrogate (``0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF``). + +.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(ch) + + Check if *ch* is a low surrogate (``0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF``). + +.. c:macro:: Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(high, low) + + Join two surrogate characters and return a single Py_UCS4 value. + *high* and *low* are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a + surrogate pair. + + +Creating and accessing Unicode strings +"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these APIs: +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 maxchar) -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromUnicode(const Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t size) + Create a new Unicode object. *maxchar* should be the true maximum code point + to be placed in the string. As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the + nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111. - Create a Unicode object from the Py_UNICODE buffer *u* of the given size. *u* - may be *NULL* which causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's - responsibility to fill in the needed data. The buffer is copied into the new - object. If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object. - Therefore, modification of the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when *u* - is *NULL*. + This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object. Objects + created using this function are not resizable. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(int kind, const void *buffer, \ + Py_ssize_t size) + + Create a new Unicode object with the given *kind* (possible values are + :c:macro:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND` etc., as returned by + :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND`). The *buffer* must point to an array of *size* + units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the kind. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(const char *u, Py_ssize_t size) - Create a Unicode object from the char buffer *u*. The bytes will be interpreted - as being UTF-8 encoded. *u* may also be *NULL* which - causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's responsibility to fill in - the needed data. The buffer is copied into the new object. If the buffer is not - *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object. Therefore, modification of - the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when *u* is *NULL*. + Create a Unicode object from the char buffer *u*. The bytes will be + interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded. The buffer is copied into the new + object. If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared + object, i.e. modification of the data is not allowed. + + If *u* is *NULL*, this function behaves like :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode` + with the buffer set to *NULL*. This usage is deprecated in favor of + :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`. .. c:function:: PyObject *PyUnicode_FromString(const char *u) @@ -260,18 +456,27 @@ APIs: | :attr:`%ld` | long | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%ld")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ + | :attr:`%li` | long | Exactly equivalent to | + | | | ``printf("%li")``. | + +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ | :attr:`%lu` | unsigned long | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%lu")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ | :attr:`%lld` | long long | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%lld")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ + | :attr:`%lli` | long long | Exactly equivalent to | + | | | ``printf("%lli")``. | + +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ | :attr:`%llu` | unsigned long long | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%llu")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ | :attr:`%zd` | Py_ssize_t | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%zd")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ + | :attr:`%zi` | Py_ssize_t | Exactly equivalent to | + | | | ``printf("%zi")``. | + +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ | :attr:`%zu` | size_t | Exactly equivalent to | | | | ``printf("%zu")``. | +-------------------+---------------------+--------------------------------+ @@ -322,27 +527,178 @@ APIs: .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Support for ``"%lld"`` and ``"%llu"`` added. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for ``"%li"``, ``"%lli"`` and ``"%zi"`` added. + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs) Identical to :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` except that it takes exactly two arguments. + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, \ + const char *encoding, const char *errors) + + Coerce an encoded object *obj* to an Unicode object and return a reference with + incremented refcount. + + :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and other char buffer compatible objects + are decoded according to the given *encoding* and using the error handling + defined by *errors*. Both can be *NULL* to have the interface use the default + values (see the next section for details). + + All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a :exc:`TypeError` to be + set. + + The API returns *NULL* if there was an error. The caller is responsible for + decref'ing the returned objects. + + +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetLength(PyObject *unicode) + + Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, \ + PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many) + + Copy characters from one Unicode object into another. This function performs + character conversion when necessary and falls back to :c:func:`memcpy` if + possible. Returns ``-1`` and sets an exception on error, otherwise returns + ``0``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Fill(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, \ + Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char) + + Fill a string with a character: write *fill_char* into + ``unicode[start:start+length]``. + + Fail if *fill_char* is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the + string has more than 1 reference. + + Return the number of written character, or return ``-1`` and raise an + exception on error. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_WriteChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index, \ + Py_UCS4 character) + + Write a character to a string. The string must have been created through + :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`. Since Unicode strings are supposed to be immutable, + the string must not be shared, or have been hashed yet. + + This function checks that *unicode* is a Unicode object, that the index is + not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified safely (i.e. that it + its reference count is one), in contrast to the macro version + :c:func:`PyUnicode_WRITE_CHAR`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_ReadChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index) + + Read a character from a string. This function checks that *unicode* is a + Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to the macro + version :c:func:`PyUnicode_READ_CHAR`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Substring(PyObject *str, Py_ssize_t start, \ + Py_ssize_t end) + + Return a substring of *str*, from character index *start* (included) to + character index *end* (excluded). Negative indices are not supported. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_AsUCS4(PyObject *u, Py_UCS4 *buffer, \ + Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null) + + Copy the string *u* into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if + *copy_null* is set. Returns *NULL* and sets an exception on error (in + particular, a :exc:`ValueError` if *buflen* is smaller than the length of + *u*). *buffer* is returned on success. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_UCS4* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(PyObject *u) + + Copy the string *u* into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using + :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`. If this fails, *NULL* is returned with a + :exc:`MemoryError` set. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs +"""""""""""""""""""""""""" + +.. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + +These API functions are deprecated with the implementation of :pep:`393`. +Extension modules can continue using them, as they will not be removed in Python +3.x, but need to be aware that their use can now cause performance and memory hits. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromUnicode(const Py_UNICODE *u, Py_ssize_t size) + + Create a Unicode object from the Py_UNICODE buffer *u* of the given size. *u* + may be *NULL* which causes the contents to be undefined. It is the user's + responsibility to fill in the needed data. The buffer is copied into the new + object. + + If the buffer is not *NULL*, the return value might be a shared object. + Therefore, modification of the resulting Unicode object is only allowed when + *u* is *NULL*. + + If the buffer is *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY` must be called once the + string content has been filled before using any of the access macros such as + :c:func:`PyUnicode_KIND`. + + Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_New`. + + +.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicode(PyObject *unicode) + + Return a read-only pointer to the Unicode object's internal + :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer, or *NULL* on error. This will create the + :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` representation of the object if it is not yet + available. Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` string may contain + embedded null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when + used in most C functions. + + Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4`, + :c:func:`PyUnicode_Substring`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_ReadChar` or similar new + APIs. + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII(Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size) Create a Unicode object by replacing all decimal digits in :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* by ASCII digits 0--9 - according to their decimal value. Return *NULL* if an exception - occurs. + according to their decimal value. Return *NULL* if an exception occurs. -.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicode(PyObject *unicode) +.. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size) - Return a read-only pointer to the Unicode object's internal - :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer, *NULL* if *unicode* is not a Unicode object. - Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string may contain embedded - null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used in - most C functions. + Like :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicode`, but also saves the :c:func:`Py_UNICODE` + array length in *size*. Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string + may contain embedded null characters, which would cause the string to be + truncated when used in most C functions. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. c:function:: Py_UNICODE* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(PyObject *unicode) @@ -350,44 +706,76 @@ APIs: Create a copy of a Unicode string ending with a nul character. Return *NULL* and raise a :exc:`MemoryError` exception on memory allocation failure, otherwise return a new allocated buffer (use :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to free - the buffer). Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string may contain - embedded null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when - used in most C functions. + the buffer). Note that the resulting :c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` string may + contain embedded null characters, which would cause the string to be + truncated when used in most C functions. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy` or similar new APIs. + .. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetSize(PyObject *unicode) - Return the length of the Unicode object. + Return the size of the deprecated :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` representation, in + code units (this includes surrogate pairs as 2 units). + Please migrate to using :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength`. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors) - Coerce an encoded object *obj* to an Unicode object and return a reference with - incremented refcount. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj) - :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and other char buffer compatible objects - are decoded according to the given *encoding* and using the error handling - defined by *errors*. Both can be *NULL* to have the interface use the default - values (see the next section for details). + Shortcut for ``PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(obj, NULL, "strict")`` which is used + throughout the interpreter whenever coercion to Unicode is needed. - All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a :exc:`TypeError` to be - set. - The API returns *NULL* if there was an error. The caller is responsible for - decref'ing the returned objects. +Locale Encoding +""""""""""""""" +The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the operating +system. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(const char *str, Py_ssize_t len, int surrogateescape) + + Decode a string from the current locale encoding. The decoder is strict if + *surrogateescape* is equal to zero, otherwise it uses the + ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler (:pep:`383`) to escape undecodable + bytes. If a byte sequence can be decoded as a surrogate character and + *surrogateescape* is not equal to zero, the byte sequence is escaped using + the ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler instead of being decoded. *str* + must end with a null character but cannot contain embedded null characters. + + .. seealso:: + + Use :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize` to decode a string from + :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` (the locale encoding read at + Python startup). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(const char *str, int surrogateescape) + + Similar to :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize`, but compute the string + length using :c:func:`strlen`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 - Shortcut for ``PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(obj, NULL, "strict")`` which is used - throughout the interpreter whenever coercion to Unicode is needed. -If the platform supports :c:type:`wchar_t` and provides a header file wchar.h, -Python can interface directly to this type using the following functions. -Support is optimized if Python's own :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` type is identical to -the system's :c:type:`wchar_t`. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(PyObject *unicode, int surrogateescape) + + Encode a Unicode object to the current locale encoding. The encoder is + strict if *surrogateescape* is equal to zero, otherwise it uses the + ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler (:pep:`383`). Return a :class:`bytes` + object. *str* cannot contain embedded null characters. + + .. seealso:: + + Use :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault` to encode a string to + :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` (the locale encoding read at + Python startup). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 File System Encoding @@ -430,6 +818,13 @@ used, passing :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder` as the conversion function: If :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is not set, fall back to the locale encoding. + .. seealso:: + + :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is initialized at startup from the + locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to decode a + string from the current locale encoding, use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Use ``'strict'`` error handler on Windows. @@ -458,6 +853,13 @@ used, passing :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder` as the conversion function: If :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is not set, fall back to the locale encoding. + .. seealso:: + + :c:data:`Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding` is initialized at startup from the + locale encoding and cannot be modified later. If you need to encode a + string to the current locale encoding, use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLocale`. + .. versionadded:: 3.2 @@ -479,9 +881,9 @@ wchar_t Support Copy the Unicode object contents into the :c:type:`wchar_t` buffer *w*. At most *size* :c:type:`wchar_t` characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing 0-termination character). Return the number of :c:type:`wchar_t` characters - copied or -1 in case of an error. Note that the resulting :c:type:`wchar_t` + copied or -1 in case of an error. Note that the resulting :c:type:`wchar_t*` string may or may not be 0-terminated. It is the responsibility of the caller - to make sure that the :c:type:`wchar_t` string is 0-terminated in case this is + to make sure that the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string is 0-terminated in case this is required by the application. Also, note that the :c:type:`wchar_t*` string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions. @@ -497,12 +899,32 @@ wchar_t Support Returns a buffer allocated by :c:func:`PyMem_Alloc` (use :c:func:`PyMem_Free` to free it) on success. On error, returns *NULL*, *\*size* is undefined and raises a :exc:`MemoryError`. Note that the - resulting :c:type:`wchar_t*` string might contain null characters, which + resulting :c:type:`wchar_t` string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions. .. versionadded:: 3.2 +UCS4 Support +"""""""""""" + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. XXX are these meant to be public? + +.. c:function:: size_t Py_UCS4_strlen(const Py_UCS4 *u) + Py_UCS4* Py_UCS4_strcpy(Py_UCS4 *s1, const Py_UCS4 *s2) + Py_UCS4* Py_UCS4_strncpy(Py_UCS4 *s1, const Py_UCS4 *s2, size_t n) + Py_UCS4* Py_UCS4_strcat(Py_UCS4 *s1, const Py_UCS4 *s2) + int Py_UCS4_strcmp(const Py_UCS4 *s1, const Py_UCS4 *s2) + int Py_UCS4_strncmp(const Py_UCS4 *s1, const Py_UCS4 *s2, size_t n) + Py_UCS4* Py_UCS4_strchr(const Py_UCS4 *s, Py_UCS4 c) + Py_UCS4* Py_UCS4_strrchr(const Py_UCS4 *s, Py_UCS4 c) + + These utility functions work on strings of :c:type:`Py_UCS4` characters and + otherwise behave like the C standard library functions with the same name. + + .. _builtincodecs: Built-in Codecs @@ -537,7 +959,8 @@ Generic Codecs These are the generic codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Decode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Decode(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *encoding, const char *errors) Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s*. *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name @@ -546,7 +969,18 @@ These are the generic codec APIs: the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Encode(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode, \ + const char *encoding, const char *errors) + + Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object. + *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same + name in the Unicode :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be used is looked up + using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by + the codec. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Encode(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *encoding, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer *s* of the given *size* and return a Python bytes object. *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the @@ -554,14 +988,9 @@ These are the generic codec APIs: to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors) - - Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object. - *encoding* and *errors* have the same meaning as the parameters of the same - name in the Unicode :meth:`encode` method. The codec to be used is looked up - using the Python codec registry. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by - the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedString`. UTF-8 Codecs @@ -576,7 +1005,8 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs: *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8`. If *consumed* is not *NULL*, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be @@ -584,18 +1014,45 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs: that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode) + + Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes + object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was + raised by the codec. + + +.. c:function:: char* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size) + + Return a pointer to the default encoding (UTF-8) of the Unicode object, and + store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in *size*. *size* + can be *NULL*, in this case no size will be stored. + + In the case of an error, *NULL* is returned with an exception set and no + *size* is stored. + + This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and + subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer. The caller is not + responsible for deallocating the buffer. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: char* PyUnicode_AsUTF8(PyObject *unicode) + + As :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize`, but does not store the size. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer *s* of the given *size* using UTF-8 and return a Python bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode) - - Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes - object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was - raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8String` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize`. UTF-32 Codecs @@ -604,7 +1061,8 @@ UTF-32 Codecs These are the UTF-32 codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int *byteorder) Decode *size* bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. *errors* (if non-*NULL*) defines the error @@ -632,7 +1090,8 @@ These are the UTF-32 codec APIs: Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32`. If *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful` will not treat @@ -641,7 +1100,15 @@ These are the UTF-32 codec APIs: that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int byteorder) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(PyObject *unicode) + + Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte + order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". + Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int byteorder) Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-32 encoded value of the Unicode data in *s*. Output is written according to the following byte order:: @@ -658,12 +1125,9 @@ These are the UTF-32 codec APIs: Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(PyObject *unicode) - - Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte - order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". - Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF32String`. UTF-16 Codecs @@ -672,7 +1136,8 @@ UTF-16 Codecs These are the UTF-16 codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int *byteorder) Decode *size* bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. *errors* (if non-*NULL*) defines the error @@ -699,7 +1164,8 @@ These are the UTF-16 codec APIs: Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16`. If *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful` will not treat @@ -708,7 +1174,15 @@ These are the UTF-16 codec APIs: number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int byteorder) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode) + + Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte + order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". + Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, int byteorder) Return a Python bytes object holding the UTF-16 encoded value of the Unicode data in *s*. Output is written according to the following byte order:: @@ -726,12 +1200,9 @@ These are the UTF-16 codec APIs: Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode) - - Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte - order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". - Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF16String`. UTF-7 Codecs @@ -746,7 +1217,8 @@ These are the UTF-7 codec APIs: *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7`. If *consumed* is not *NULL*, trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not @@ -754,7 +1226,8 @@ These are the UTF-7 codec APIs: bytes that have been decoded will be stored in *consumed*. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, int base64SetO, int base64WhiteSpace, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + int base64SetO, int base64WhiteSpace, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given size using UTF-7 and return a Python bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by @@ -765,6 +1238,11 @@ These are the UTF-7 codec APIs: nonzero, whitespace will be encoded in base-64. Both are set to zero for the Python "utf-7" codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API. + + .. XXX replace with what? + Unicode-Escape Codecs """"""""""""""""""""" @@ -772,24 +1250,29 @@ Unicode-Escape Codecs These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *s, \ + Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded string *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode) + + Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as Python + string object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was + raised by the codec. + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Unicode-Escape and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode) - - Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as Python - string object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was - raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString`. Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs @@ -798,19 +1281,13 @@ Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *s, \ + Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) - - Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Raw-Unicode-Escape - and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by - the codec. - - .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode) Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as @@ -818,6 +1295,18 @@ These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs: was raised by the codec. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape(const Py_UNICODE *s, \ + Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) + + Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Raw-Unicode-Escape + and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by + the codec. + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString`. + + Latin-1 Codecs """""""""""""" @@ -831,18 +1320,22 @@ ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding. *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode) + + Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes + object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was + raised by the codec. + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using Latin-1 and return a Python bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode) - - Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes - object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was - raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsLatin1String`. ASCII Codecs @@ -858,18 +1351,22 @@ codes generate errors. *s*. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode) + + Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes + object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was + raised by the codec. + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using ASCII and return a Python bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode) - - Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes - object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was - raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsASCIIString`. Character Map Codecs @@ -898,7 +1395,8 @@ characters to different code points. These are the mapping codec APIs: -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + PyObject *mapping, const char *errors) Create a Unicode object by decoding *size* bytes of the encoded string *s* using the given *mapping* object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the @@ -908,13 +1406,6 @@ These are the mapping codec APIs: treated as "undefined mapping". -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors) - - Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using the given - *mapping* object and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an - exception was raised by the codec. - - .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping) Encode a Unicode object using the given *mapping* object and return the result @@ -924,7 +1415,8 @@ These are the mapping codec APIs: The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, PyObject *table, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + PyObject *table, const char *errors) Translate a :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* by applying a character mapping *table* to it and return the resulting Unicode object. Return @@ -937,6 +1429,22 @@ The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode. and sequences work well. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a :exc:`LookupError`) are left untouched and are copied as-is. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API. + + .. XXX replace with what? + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, \ + PyObject *mapping, const char *errors) + + Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using the given + *mapping* object and return a Python string object. Return *NULL* if an + exception was raised by the codec. + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsCharmapString`. MBCS codecs for Windows @@ -953,7 +1461,8 @@ the user settings on the machine running the codec. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *s, int size, const char *errors, int *consumed) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *s, int size, \ + const char *errors, int *consumed) If *consumed* is *NULL*, behave like :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS`. If *consumed* is not *NULL*, :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful` will not decode @@ -961,18 +1470,31 @@ the user settings on the machine running the codec. in *consumed*. +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode) + + Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes + object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was + raised by the codec. + + +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(int code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors) + + Encode the Unicode object using the specified code page and return a Python + bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. Use + :c:data:`CP_ACP` code page to get the MBCS encoder. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(const Py_UNICODE *s, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) Encode the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` buffer of the given *size* using MBCS and return a Python bytes object. Return *NULL* if an exception was raised by the codec. - -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode) - - Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes - object. Error handling is "strict". Return *NULL* if an exception was - raised by the codec. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + Part of the old-style :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` API; please migrate to using + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsMBCSString` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage`. Methods & Slots @@ -1011,7 +1533,8 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. characters are not included in the resulting strings. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *str, PyObject *table, const char *errors) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *str, PyObject *table, \ + const char *errors) Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the resulting Unicode object. @@ -1033,14 +1556,16 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. Unicode string. -.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) +.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \ + Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) Return 1 if *substr* matches ``str[start:end]`` at the given tail end (*direction* == -1 means to do a prefix match, *direction* == 1 a suffix match), 0 otherwise. Return ``-1`` if an error occurred. -.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \ + Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) Return the first position of *substr* in ``str[start:end]`` using the given *direction* (*direction* == 1 means to do a forward search, *direction* == -1 a @@ -1049,13 +1574,27 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. occurred and an exception has been set. -.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end) +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_FindChar(PyObject *str, Py_UCS4 ch, \ + Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) + + Return the first position of the character *ch* in ``str[start:end]`` using + the given *direction* (*direction* == 1 means to do a forward search, + *direction* == -1 a backward search). The return value is the index of the + first match; a value of ``-1`` indicates that no match was found, and ``-2`` + indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \ + Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end) Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of *substr* in ``str[start:end]``. Return ``-1`` if an error occurred. -.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *str, PyObject *substr, \ + PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount) Replace at most *maxcount* occurrences of *substr* in *str* with *replstr* and return the resulting Unicode object. *maxcount* == -1 means replace all @@ -1076,7 +1615,7 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters". -.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op) +.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op) Rich compare two unicode strings and return one of the following: @@ -1103,8 +1642,8 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. Check whether *element* is contained in *container* and return true or false accordingly. - *element* has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. ``-1`` is returned if - there was an error. + *element* has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. ``-1`` is returned + if there was an error. .. c:function:: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace(PyObject **string) @@ -1123,7 +1662,6 @@ They all return *NULL* or ``-1`` if an exception occurs. .. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *v) A combination of :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and - :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, returning either a new unicode string object - that has been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier interned - string object with the same value. - + :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, returning either a new unicode string + object that has been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier + interned string object with the same value. diff --git a/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst b/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst index 41cdd6b..499eb3e 100644 --- a/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst +++ b/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst @@ -95,12 +95,6 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using. leaving *closeit* set to ``0`` and *flags* set to *NULL*. -.. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleFileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags) - - This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags` below, - leaving *closeit* set to ``0``. - - .. c:function:: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit) This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags` below, diff --git a/Doc/conf.py b/Doc/conf.py index 555f281..6b085e0 100644 --- a/Doc/conf.py +++ b/Doc/conf.py @@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ html_additional_pages = { } # Output an OpenSearch description file. -html_use_opensearch = 'http://docs.python.org/3.2' +html_use_opensearch = 'http://docs.python.org/' + version # Additional static files. html_static_path = ['tools/sphinxext/static'] diff --git a/Doc/data/refcounts.dat b/Doc/data/refcounts.dat index c7d7bd1..a1004ad 100644 --- a/Doc/data/refcounts.dat +++ b/Doc/data/refcounts.dat @@ -465,6 +465,11 @@ PyFunction_New:PyObject*::+1: PyFunction_New:PyObject*:code:+1: PyFunction_New:PyObject*:globals:+1: +PyFunction_NewWithQualName:PyObject*::+1: +PyFunction_NewWithQualName:PyObject*:code:+1: +PyFunction_NewWithQualName:PyObject*:globals:+1: +PyFunction_NewWithQualName:PyObject*:qualname:+1: + PyFunction_SetClosure:int::: PyFunction_SetClosure:PyObject*:op:0: PyFunction_SetClosure:PyObject*:closure:+1: diff --git a/Doc/distutils/apiref.rst b/Doc/distutils/apiref.rst index e15dc76..71702e5 100644 --- a/Doc/distutils/apiref.rst +++ b/Doc/distutils/apiref.rst @@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ the full reference. .. class:: Extension The Extension class describes a single C or C++extension module in a setup - script. It accepts the following keyword arguments in its constructor + script. It accepts the following keyword arguments in its constructor: +------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------------+ | argument name | value | type | @@ -1157,12 +1157,11 @@ other utility module. .. function:: grok_environment_error(exc[, prefix='error: ']) - Generate a useful error message from an :exc:`EnvironmentError` (:exc:`IOError` - or :exc:`OSError`) exception object. Handles Python 1.5.1 and later styles, - and does what it can to deal with exception objects that don't have a filename - (which happens when the error is due to a two-file operation, such as - :func:`rename` or :func:`link`). Returns the error message as a string - prefixed with *prefix*. + Generate a useful error message from an :exc:`OSError` exception object. + Handles Python 1.5.1 and later styles, and does what it can to deal with + exception objects that don't have a filename (which happens when the error + is due to a two-file operation, such as :func:`rename` or :func:`link`). + Returns the error message as a string prefixed with *prefix*. .. function:: split_quoted(s) diff --git a/Doc/extending/extending.rst b/Doc/extending/extending.rst index 7fd9f72..ef95ac9 100644 --- a/Doc/extending/extending.rst +++ b/Doc/extending/extending.rst @@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for parsing via The :const:`METH_KEYWORDS` bit may be set in the third field if keyword arguments should be passed to the function. In this case, the C function should -accept a third ``PyObject \*`` parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords. +accept a third ``PyObject *`` parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords. Use :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` to parse the arguments to such a function. @@ -384,9 +384,6 @@ optionally followed by an import of the module:: imports it. */ PyImport_ImportModule("spam"); -An example may be found in the file :file:`Demo/embed/demo.c` in the Python -source distribution. - .. note:: Removing entries from ``sys.modules`` or importing compiled modules into diff --git a/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst index 8f18253..b90d35c 100644 --- a/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst +++ b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst @@ -26,11 +26,12 @@ The Basics ========== The Python runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type -:c:type:`PyObject\*`. A :c:type:`PyObject` is not a very magnificent object - it -just contains the refcount and a pointer to the object's "type object". This is -where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions get called -when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up on an object or it is multiplied -by another object. These C functions are called "type methods". +:c:type:`PyObject\*`, which serves as a "base type" for all Python objects. +:c:type:`PyObject` itself only contains the refcount and a pointer to the +object's "type object". This is where the action is; the type object determines +which (C) functions get called when, for instance, an attribute gets looked +up on an object or it is multiplied by another object. These C functions +are called "type methods". So, if you want to define a new object type, you need to create a new type object. @@ -50,15 +51,15 @@ The first bit that will be new is:: PyObject_HEAD } noddy_NoddyObject; -This is what a Noddy object will contain---in this case, nothing more than every -Python object contains, namely a refcount and a pointer to a type object. These -are the fields the ``PyObject_HEAD`` macro brings in. The reason for the macro -is to standardize the layout and to enable special debugging fields in debug -builds. Note that there is no semicolon after the ``PyObject_HEAD`` macro; one -is included in the macro definition. Be wary of adding one by accident; it's -easy to do from habit, and your compiler might not complain, but someone else's -probably will! (On Windows, MSVC is known to call this an error and refuse to -compile the code.) +This is what a Noddy object will contain---in this case, nothing more than what +every Python object contains---a refcount and a pointer to a type object. +These are the fields the ``PyObject_HEAD`` macro brings in. The reason for the +macro is to standardize the layout and to enable special debugging fields in +debug builds. Note that there is no semicolon after the ``PyObject_HEAD`` +macro; one is included in the macro definition. Be wary of adding one by +accident; it's easy to do from habit, and your compiler might not complain, +but someone else's probably will! (On Windows, MSVC is known to call this an +error and refuse to compile the code.) For contrast, let's take a look at the corresponding definition for standard Python floats:: @@ -224,7 +225,7 @@ doesn't do anything. It can't even be subclassed. Adding data and methods to the Basic example -------------------------------------------- -Let's expend the basic example to add some data and methods. Let's also make +Let's extend the basic example to add some data and methods. Let's also make the type usable as a base class. We'll create a new module, :mod:`noddy2` that adds these capabilities: @@ -288,18 +289,16 @@ strings, so we provide a new method:: self = (Noddy *)type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyString_FromString(""); - if (self->first == NULL) - { + if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } + } self->last = PyString_FromString(""); - if (self->last == NULL) - { + if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } + } self->number = 0; } @@ -327,8 +326,8 @@ any arguments passed when the type was called, and that returns the new object created. New methods always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer methods. Note that if the type supports subclassing, the type passed may not be -the type being defined. The new method calls the tp_alloc slot to allocate -memory. We don't fill the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot ourselves. Rather +the type being defined. The new method calls the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot to +allocate memory. We don't fill the :attr:`tp_alloc` slot ourselves. Rather :c:func:`PyType_Ready` fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class, which is :class:`object` by default. Most types use the default allocation. @@ -445,15 +444,6 @@ concatenation of the first and last names. :: static PyObject * Noddy_name(Noddy* self) { - static PyObject *format = NULL; - PyObject *args, *result; - - if (format == NULL) { - format = PyString_FromString("%s %s"); - if (format == NULL) - return NULL; - } - if (self->first == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first"); return NULL; @@ -464,20 +454,13 @@ concatenation of the first and last names. :: return NULL; } - args = Py_BuildValue("OO", self->first, self->last); - if (args == NULL) - return NULL; - - result = PyString_Format(format, args); - Py_DECREF(args); - - return result; + return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } The method is implemented as a C function that takes a :class:`Noddy` (or :class:`Noddy` subclass) instance as the first argument. Methods always take an instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword -arguments as well, but in this cased we don't take any and don't need to accept +arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and don't need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is equivalent to the Python method:: @@ -1124,9 +1107,6 @@ needed for methods inherited from a base type. One additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array. The :attr:`ml_name` field of the sentinel must be *NULL*. -XXX Need to refer to some unified discussion of the structure fields, shared -with the next section. - The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data stored in the instance. A variety of primitive C types are supported, and access may be read-only or read-write. The structures in the table are defined as:: @@ -1146,8 +1126,6 @@ type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure. The convert Python values to and from C values. The :attr:`flags` field is used to store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed. -XXX Need to move some of this to a shared section! - The following flag constants are defined in :file:`structmember.h`; they may be combined using bitwise-OR. @@ -1372,7 +1350,7 @@ Here is a desultory example of the implementation of the call function. :: return result; } -XXX some fields need to be added here... :: +:: /* Iterators */ getiterfunc tp_iter; diff --git a/Doc/faq/design.rst b/Doc/faq/design.rst index 7c5116d..6b8a8fd 100644 --- a/Doc/faq/design.rst +++ b/Doc/faq/design.rst @@ -515,14 +515,16 @@ far) under most circumstances, and the implementation is simpler. Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the dictionary using the :func:`hash` built-in function. The hash code varies widely depending -on the key; for example, "Python" hashes to -539294296 while "python", a string -that differs by a single bit, hashes to 1142331976. The hash code is then used -to calculate a location in an internal array where the value will be stored. -Assuming that you're storing keys that all have different hash values, this -means that dictionaries take constant time -- O(1), in computer science notation --- to retrieve a key. It also means that no sorted order of the keys is -maintained, and traversing the array as the ``.keys()`` and ``.items()`` do will -output the dictionary's content in some arbitrary jumbled order. +on the key and a per-process seed; for example, "Python" could hash to +-539294296 while "python", a string that differs by a single bit, could hash +to 1142331976. The hash code is then used to calculate a location in an +internal array where the value will be stored. Assuming that you're storing +keys that all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take +constant time -- O(1), in computer science notation -- to retrieve a key. It +also means that no sorted order of the keys is maintained, and traversing the +array as the ``.keys()`` and ``.items()`` do will output the dictionary's +content in some arbitrary jumbled order that can change with every invocation of +a program. Why must dictionary keys be immutable? @@ -634,7 +636,7 @@ construction of large programs. Python 2.6 adds an :mod:`abc` module that lets you define Abstract Base Classes (ABCs). You can then use :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass` to check whether an instance or a class implements a particular ABC. The -:mod:`collections` module defines a set of useful ABCs such as +:mod:`collections.abc` module defines a set of useful ABCs such as :class:`Iterable`, :class:`Container`, and :class:`MutableMapping`. For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be obtained diff --git a/Doc/faq/extending.rst b/Doc/faq/extending.rst index 7c684a0..fa245c7 100644 --- a/Doc/faq/extending.rst +++ b/Doc/faq/extending.rst @@ -445,34 +445,3 @@ In Python 2.2, you can inherit from built-in classes such as :class:`int`, The Boost Python Library (BPL, http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html) provides a way of doing this from C++ (i.e. you can inherit from an extension class written in C++ using the BPL). - - -When importing module X, why do I get "undefined symbol: PyUnicodeUCS2*"? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -You are using a version of Python that uses a 4-byte representation for Unicode -characters, but some C extension module you are importing was compiled using a -Python that uses a 2-byte representation for Unicode characters (the default). - -If instead the name of the undefined symbol starts with ``PyUnicodeUCS4``, the -problem is the reverse: Python was built using 2-byte Unicode characters, and -the extension module was compiled using a Python with 4-byte Unicode characters. - -This can easily occur when using pre-built extension packages. RedHat Linux -7.x, in particular, provided a "python2" binary that is compiled with 4-byte -Unicode. This only causes the link failure if the extension uses any of the -``PyUnicode_*()`` functions. It is also a problem if an extension uses any of -the Unicode-related format specifiers for :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` (or similar) or -parameter specifications for :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`. - -You can check the size of the Unicode character a Python interpreter is using by -checking the value of sys.maxunicode: - - >>> import sys - >>> if sys.maxunicode > 65535: - ... print('UCS4 build') - ... else: - ... print('UCS2 build') - -The only way to solve this problem is to use extension modules compiled with a -Python binary built using the same size for Unicode characters. diff --git a/Doc/faq/library.rst b/Doc/faq/library.rst index 7385c59..cab2d7b 100644 --- a/Doc/faq/library.rst +++ b/Doc/faq/library.rst @@ -351,7 +351,7 @@ When run, this will produce the following output: Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5 ... -Consult the module's documentation for more details; the :class:`~queue.Queue`` +Consult the module's documentation for more details; the :class:`~queue.Queue` class provides a featureful interface. diff --git a/Doc/glossary.rst b/Doc/glossary.rst index 7cd9905..b9782d8 100644 --- a/Doc/glossary.rst +++ b/Doc/glossary.rst @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ Glossary subclasses, which are classes that don't inherit from a class but are still recognized by :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`; see the :mod:`abc` module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for - data structures (in the :mod:`collections` module), numbers (in the + data structures (in the :mod:`collections.abc` module), numbers (in the :mod:`numbers` module), streams (in the :mod:`io` module), import finders and loaders (in the :mod:`importlib.abc` module). You can create your own ABCs with the :mod:`abc` module. @@ -209,9 +209,9 @@ Glossary finder An object that tries to find the :term:`loader` for a module. It must - implement a method named :meth:`find_module`. See :pep:`302` for - details and :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` for an - :term:`abstract base class`. + implement either a method named :meth:`find_loader` or a method named + :meth:`find_module`. See :pep:`302` and :pep:`420` for details and + :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` for an :term:`abstract base class`. floor division Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor @@ -315,6 +315,17 @@ Glossary role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. + import path + A list of locations (or :term:`path entries <path entry>`) that are + searched by the :term:`path based finder` for modules to import. During + import, this list of locations usually comes from :data:`sys.path`, but + for subpackages it may also come from the parent package's ``__path__`` + attribute. + + importing + The process by which Python code in one module is made available to + Python code in another module. + importer An object that both finds and loads a module; both a :term:`finder` and :term:`loader` object. @@ -434,12 +445,17 @@ Glossary mapping A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the - methods specified in the :class:`~collections.Mapping` or - :class:`~collections.MutableMapping` + methods specified in the :class:`~collections.abc.Mapping` or + :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping` :ref:`abstract base classes <collections-abstract-base-classes>`. Examples include :class:`dict`, :class:`collections.defaultdict`, :class:`collections.OrderedDict` and :class:`collections.Counter`. + meta path finder + A finder returned by a search of :data:`sys.meta_path`. Meta path + finders are related to, but different from :term:`path entry finders + <path entry finder>`. + metaclass The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for @@ -464,6 +480,11 @@ Glossary for a member during lookup. See `The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order <http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/>`_. + module + An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules + have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded + into Python by the process of :term:`importing`. + MRO See :term:`method resolution order`. @@ -496,6 +517,12 @@ Glossary functions are implemented by the :mod:`random` and :mod:`itertools` modules, respectively. + namespace package + A :pep:`420` :term:`package` which serves only as a container for + subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, + and specifically are not like a :term:`regular package` because they + have no ``__init__.py`` file. + nested scope The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to @@ -516,6 +543,33 @@ Glossary (methods). Also the ultimate base class of any :term:`new-style class`. + package + A Python module which can contain submodules or recursively, + subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with an + ``__path__`` attribute. + + path entry + A single location on the :term:`import path` which the :term:`path + based finder` consults to find modules for importing. + + path entry finder + A :term:`finder` returned by a callable on :data:`sys.path_hooks` + (i.e. a :term:`path entry hook`) which knows how to locate modules given + a :term:`path entry`. + + path entry hook + A callable on the :data:`sys.path_hook` list which returns a :term:`path + entry finder` if it knows how to find modules on a specific :term:`path + entry`. + + path based finder + One of the default :term:`meta path finders <meta path finder>` which + searches an :term:`import path` for modules. + + portion + A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) + that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in :pep:`420`. + positional argument The arguments assigned to local names inside a function or method, determined by the order in which they were given in the call. ``*`` is @@ -523,9 +577,23 @@ Glossary definition), or pass several arguments as a list to a function. See :term:`argument`. + provisional package + A provisional package is one which has been deliberately excluded from + the standard library's backwards compatibility guarantees. While major + changes to such packages are not expected, as long as they are marked + provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal + of the package) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. Such + changes will not be made gratuitously -- they will occur only if serious + flaws are uncovered that were missed prior to the inclusion of the + package. + + This process allows the standard library to continue to evolve over + time, without locking in problematic design errors for extended periods + of time. See :pep:`411` for more details. + Python 3000 - Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the release - of version 3 was something in the distant future.) This is also + Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the + release of version 3 was something in the distant future.) This is also abbreviated "Py3k". Pythonic @@ -544,6 +612,32 @@ Glossary for piece in food: print(piece) + qualified name + A dotted name showing the "path" from a module's global scope to a + class, function or method defined in that module, as defined in + :pep:`3155`. For top-level functions and classes, the qualified name + is the same as the object's name:: + + >>> class C: + ... class D: + ... def meth(self): + ... pass + ... + >>> C.__qualname__ + 'C' + >>> C.D.__qualname__ + 'C.D' + >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__ + 'C.D.meth' + + When used to refer to modules, the *fully qualified name* means the + entire dotted path to the module, including any parent packages, + e.g. ``email.mime.text``:: + + >>> import email.mime.text + >>> email.mime.text.__name__ + 'email.mime.text' + reference count The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Reference counting is @@ -552,6 +646,10 @@ Glossary :func:`~sys.getrefcount` function that programmers can call to return the reference count for a particular object. + regular package + A traditional :term:`package`, such as a directory containing an + ``__init__.py`` file. + __slots__ A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries. Though @@ -586,6 +684,14 @@ Glossary an :term:`expression` or a one of several constructs with a keyword, such as :keyword:`if`, :keyword:`while` or :keyword:`for`. + struct sequence + A tuple with named elements. Struct sequences expose an interface similar + to :term:`named tuple` in that elements can either be accessed either by + index or as an attribute. However, they do not have any of the named tuple + methods like :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._make` or + :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._asdict`. Examples of struct sequences + include :data:`sys.float_info` and the return value of :func:`os.stat`. + triple-quoted string A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark (") or an apostrophe ('). While they don't provide any functionality diff --git a/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst b/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst index 1616f67..0b513f9 100644 --- a/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst +++ b/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst @@ -36,9 +36,7 @@ continuing through the base classes of ``type(a)`` excluding metaclasses. If the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead. Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods -were defined. Note that descriptors are only invoked for new style objects or -classes (a class is new style if it inherits from :class:`object` or -:class:`type`). +were defined. Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol. They are the mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and :func:`super()`. @@ -89,8 +87,6 @@ of ``obj``. If ``d`` defines the method :meth:`__get__`, then ``d.__get__(obj)` is invoked according to the precedence rules listed below. The details of invocation depend on whether ``obj`` is an object or a class. -Either way, descriptors only work for new style objects and classes. A class is -new style if it is a subclass of :class:`object`. For objects, the machinery is in :meth:`object.__getattribute__` which transforms ``b.x`` into ``type(b).__dict__['x'].__get__(b, type(b))``. The @@ -115,7 +111,6 @@ The important points to remember are: * descriptors are invoked by the :meth:`__getattribute__` method * overriding :meth:`__getattribute__` prevents automatic descriptor calls -* :meth:`__getattribute__` is only available with new style classes and objects * :meth:`object.__getattribute__` and :meth:`type.__getattribute__` make different calls to :meth:`__get__`. * data descriptors always override instance dictionaries. @@ -128,10 +123,7 @@ and then returns ``A.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)``. If not a descriptor, ``m`` is returned unchanged. If not in the dictionary, ``m`` reverts to a search using :meth:`object.__getattribute__`. -Note, in Python 2.2, ``super(B, obj).m()`` would only invoke :meth:`__get__` if -``m`` was a data descriptor. In Python 2.3, non-data descriptors also get -invoked unless an old-style class is involved. The implementation details are -in :c:func:`super_getattro()` in +The implementation details are in :c:func:`super_getattro()` in `Objects/typeobject.c <http://svn.python.org/view/python/trunk/Objects/typeobject.c?view=markup>`_ and a pure Python equivalent can be found in `Guido's Tutorial`_. diff --git a/Doc/howto/index.rst b/Doc/howto/index.rst index a11d3da..f44e8c0 100644 --- a/Doc/howto/index.rst +++ b/Doc/howto/index.rst @@ -28,4 +28,5 @@ Currently, the HOWTOs are: urllib2.rst webservers.rst argparse.rst + ipaddress.rst diff --git a/Doc/howto/ipaddress.rst b/Doc/howto/ipaddress.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b6d05c --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/howto/ipaddress.rst @@ -0,0 +1,336 @@ +.. _ipaddress-howto: + +*************************************** +An Introduction to the ipaddress module +*************************************** + +:author: Peter Moody +:author: Nick Coghlan + +.. topic:: Overview + + This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the + :mod:`ipaddress` module. It is aimed primarily at users that aren't + already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful + to network engineers wanting an overview of how :mod:`ipaddress` + represents IP network addressing concepts. + + +Creating Address/Network/Interface objects +========================================== + +Since :mod:`ipaddress` is a module for inspecting and manipulating IP addresses, +the first thing you'll want to do is create some objects. You can use +:mod:`ipaddress` to create objects from strings and integers. + + +A Note on IP Versions +--------------------- + +For readers that aren't particularly familiar with IP addressing, it's +important to know that the Internet Protocol is currently in the process +of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6. This transition is +occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol doesn't provide enough +addresses to handle the needs of the whole world, especially given the +increasing number of devices with direct connections to the internet. + +Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of the +protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need to at +least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will sometimes be +necessary to force the use of one version or the other. + + +IP Host Addresses +----------------- + +Addresses, often referred to as "host addresses" are the most basic unit +when working with IP addressing. The simplest way to create addresses is +to use the :func:`ipaddress.ip_address` factory function, which automatically +determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address based on the passed in +value:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') + >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1') + IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') + +Addresses can also be created directly from integers. Values that will +fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985) + IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') + >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561) + IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') + +To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be +invoked directly. This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6 +addresses for small integers:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1) + IPv4Address('0.0.0.1') + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1) + IPv4Address('0.0.0.1') + >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1) + IPv6Address('::1') + + +Defining Networks +----------------- + +Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so +:mod:`ipaddress` provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network +definitions. IP network objects are constructed from strings that define the +range of host addresses that are part of that network. The simplest form +for that information is a "network address/network prefix" pair, where the +prefix defines the number of leading bits that are compared to determine +whether or not an address is part of the network and the network address +defines the expected value of those bits. + +As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the correct +IP version automatically:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') + IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') + +Network objects cannot have any host bits set. The practical effect of this +is that ``192.0.2.1/24`` does not describe a network. Such definitions are +referred to as interface objects since the ip-on-a-network notation is +commonly used to describe network interfaces of a computer on a given network +and are described further in the next section. + +By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set will +result in :exc:`ValueError` being raised. To request that the +additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ``strict=False`` can +be passed to the constructor:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24') + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False) + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') + +While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks can +also be defined with integers, just like host addresses. In this case, the +network is considered to contain only the single address identified by the +integer, so the network prefix includes the entire network address:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984) + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32') + >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560) + IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128') + +As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be forced +by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the factory +function. + + +Host Interfaces +--------------- + +As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a particular +network, neither the address nor the network classes are sufficient. +Notation like ``192.0.2.1/24`` is commonly used by network engineers and the +people who write tools for firewalls and routers as shorthand for "the host +``192.0.2.1`` on the network ``192.0.2.0/24``", Accordingly, :mod:`ipaddress` +provides a set of hybrid classes that associate an address with a particular +network. The interface for creation is identical to that for defining network +objects, except that the address portion isn't constrained to being a network +address. + + >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24') + IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24') + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::1/96') + IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96') + +Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular IP +version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly. + + +Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects +============================================ + +You've gone to the trouble of creating an IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) +object, so you probably want to get information about it. :mod:`ipaddress` +tries to make doing this easy and intuitive. + +Extracting the IP version:: + + >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') + >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1') + >>> addr6.version + 6 + >>> addr4.version + 4 + +Obtaining the network from an interface:: + + >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24') + >>> host4.network + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') + >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96') + >>> host6.network + IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') + +Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network:: + + >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') + >>> net4.numhosts + 256 + >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') + >>> net6.numhosts + 4294967296 + +Iterating through the "usable" addresses on a network:: + + >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') + >>> for x in net4.hosts(): + print(x) + 192.0.2.1 + 192.0.2.2 + 192.0.2.3 + 192.0.2.4 + <snip> + 192.0.2.252 + 192.0.2.253 + 192.0.2.254 + + +Obtaining the netmask (i.e. set bits corresponding to the network prefix) or +the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask): + + >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') + >>> net4.netmask + IPv4Address('255.255.255.0') + >>> net4.hostmask + IPv4Address('0.0.0.255') + >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') + >>> net6.netmask + IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') + >>> net6.hostmask + IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff') + + +Exploding or compressing the address:: + + >>> addr6.exploded + '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000' + >>> addr6.compressed + '2001:db8::' + >>> net6.exploded + '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96' + >>> net6.compressed + '2001:db8::/96' + +While IPv4 doesn't support explosion or compression, the associated objects +still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral code can +easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for IPv6 +addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses. + + +Networks as lists of Addresses +============================== + +It's sometimes useful to treat networks as lists. This means it is possible +to index them like this:: + + >>> net4[1] + IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') + >>> net4[-1] + IPv4Address('192.0.2.255') + >>> net6[1] + IPv6Address('2001::1') + >>> net6[-1] + IPv6Address('2001::ffff:ffff') + + +It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list +membership test syntax like this:: + + if address in network: + # do something + +Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix:: + + >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') + >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') + True + >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24') + False + + +Comparisons +=========== + +:mod:`ipaddress` provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to compare +objects, where it makes sense:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2') + True + +A :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised if you try to compare objects of +different versions or different types. + + +Using IP Addresses with other modules +===================================== + +Other modules that use IP addresses (such as :mod:`socket`) usually won't +accept objects from this module directly. Instead, they must be coerced to +an integer or string that the other module will accept:: + + >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') + >>> str(addr4) + '192.0.2.1' + >>> int(addr4) + 3221225985 + + +Getting more detail when instance creation fails +================================================ + +When creating address/network/interface objects using the version-agnostic +factory functions, any errors will be reported as :exc:`ValueError` with +a generic error message that simply says the passed in value was not +recognized as an object of that type. The lack of a specific error is +because it's necessary to know whether the value is *supposed* to be IPv4 +or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why it has been rejected. + +To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this additional +detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the +:exc:`ValueError` subclasses :exc:`ipaddress.AddressValueError` and +:exc:`ipaddress.NetmaskValueError` to indicate exactly which part of +the definition failed to parse correctly. + +The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the +class constructors directly. For example:: + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256") + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256") + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256' + + >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64") + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64") + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask + +However, both of the module specific exceptions have :exc:`ValueError` as their +parent class, so if you're not concerned with the particular type of error, +you can still write code like the following:: + + try: + network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address) + except ValueError: + print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address) + diff --git a/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst b/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst index 370c757..92af0ec 100644 --- a/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst +++ b/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst @@ -1316,6 +1316,33 @@ For more information about this configuration, you can see the `relevant section <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.3/topics/logging/#configuring-logging>`_ of the Django documentation. +.. _cookbook-rotator-namer: + +Using a rotator and namer to customise log rotation processing +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the following +snippet, which shows zlib-based compression of the log file:: + + def namer(name): + return name + ".gz" + + def rotator(source, dest): + with open(source, "rb") as sf: + data = sf.read() + compressed = zlib.compress(data, 9) + with open(dest, "wb") as df: + df.write(compressed) + os.remove(source) + + rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(...) + rh.rotator = rotator + rh.namer = namer + +These are not "true" .gz files, as they are bare compressed data, with no +"container" such as you’d find in an actual gzip file. This snippet is just +for illustration purposes. + A more elaborate multiprocessing example ---------------------------------------- @@ -1572,7 +1599,7 @@ UTF-8, then you need to do the following: 'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section' - The Unicode code point ``'\feff```, when encoded using UTF-8, will be + The Unicode code point ``'\feff'``, when encoded using UTF-8, will be encoded as a UTF-8 BOM -- the byte-string ``b'\xef\xbb\xbf'``. #. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but make sure diff --git a/Doc/howto/sockets.rst b/Doc/howto/sockets.rst index 279bb3e..ca6528b 100644 --- a/Doc/howto/sockets.rst +++ b/Doc/howto/sockets.rst @@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ It's not really a tutorial - you'll still have work to do in getting things working. It doesn't cover the fine points (and there are a lot of them), but I hope it will give you enough background to begin using them decently. -I'm only going to talk about INET sockets, but they account for at least 99% of -the sockets in use. And I'll only talk about STREAM sockets - unless you really +I'm only going to talk about INET (i.e. IPv4) sockets, but they account for at least 99% of +the sockets in use. And I'll only talk about STREAM (i.e. TCP) sockets - unless you really know what you're doing (in which case this HOWTO isn't for you!), you'll get better behavior and performance from a STREAM socket than anything else. I will try to clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how to @@ -208,10 +208,10 @@ length message:: totalsent = totalsent + sent def myreceive(self): - msg = '' + msg = b'' while len(msg) < MSGLEN: chunk = self.sock.recv(MSGLEN-len(msg)) - if chunk == '': + if chunk == b'': raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken") msg = msg + chunk return msg @@ -371,12 +371,6 @@ have created a new socket to ``connect`` to someone else, put it in the potential_writers list. If it shows up in the writable list, you have a decent chance that it has connected. -One very nasty problem with ``select``: if somewhere in those input lists of -sockets is one which has died a nasty death, the ``select`` will fail. You then -need to loop through every single damn socket in all those lists and do a -``select([sock],[],[],0)`` until you find the bad one. That timeout of 0 means -it won't take long, but it's ugly. - Actually, ``select`` can be handy even with blocking sockets. It's one way of determining whether you will block - the socket returns as readable when there's something in the buffers. However, this still doesn't help with the problem of @@ -386,26 +380,6 @@ determining whether the other end is done, or just busy with something else. files. Don't try this on Windows. On Windows, ``select`` works with sockets only. Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket options are done differently on Windows. In fact, on Windows I usually use threads (which work -very, very well) with my sockets. Face it, if you want any kind of performance, -your code will look very different on Windows than on Unix. - - -Performance ------------ +very, very well) with my sockets. -There's no question that the fastest sockets code uses non-blocking sockets and -select to multiplex them. You can put together something that will saturate a -LAN connection without putting any strain on the CPU. - -The trouble is that an app written this way can't do much of anything else - -it needs to be ready to shuffle bytes around at all times. Assuming that your -app is actually supposed to do something more than that, threading is the -optimal solution, (and using non-blocking sockets will be faster than using -blocking sockets). - -Finally, remember that even though blocking sockets are somewhat slower than -non-blocking, in many cases they are the "right" solution. After all, if your -app is driven by the data it receives over a socket, there's not much sense in -complicating the logic just so your app can wait on ``select`` instead of -``recv``. diff --git a/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst b/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst index fade4a3..20dca20 100644 --- a/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst +++ b/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst @@ -56,6 +56,13 @@ The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:: response = urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') html = response.read() +If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary location, +you can do so via the :func:`urlretrieve` function:: + + import urllib.request + local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/') + html = open(local_filename) + Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:' URL we could have used an URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.). However, it's the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, concentrating on diff --git a/Doc/includes/mp_benchmarks.py b/Doc/includes/mp_benchmarks.py index acdf642..3763ea9 100644 --- a/Doc/includes/mp_benchmarks.py +++ b/Doc/includes/mp_benchmarks.py @@ -6,16 +6,12 @@ # import time -import sys import multiprocessing import threading import queue import gc -if sys.platform == 'win32': - _timer = time.clock -else: - _timer = time.time +_timer = time.perf_counter delta = 1 diff --git a/Doc/includes/noddy2.c b/Doc/includes/noddy2.c index 9b8eafb..9641558 100644 --- a/Doc/includes/noddy2.c +++ b/Doc/includes/noddy2.c @@ -24,18 +24,16 @@ Noddy_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) self = (Noddy *)type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->first == NULL) - { + if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } - + } + self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->last == NULL) - { + if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } + } self->number = 0; } @@ -50,10 +48,10 @@ Noddy_init(Noddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; - if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, - &first, &last, + if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, + &first, &last, &self->number)) - return -1; + return -1; if (first) { tmp = self->first; @@ -86,15 +84,6 @@ static PyMemberDef Noddy_members[] = { static PyObject * Noddy_name(Noddy* self) { - static PyObject *format = NULL; - PyObject *args, *result; - - if (format == NULL) { - format = PyUnicode_FromString("%s %s"); - if (format == NULL) - return NULL; - } - if (self->first == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first"); return NULL; @@ -105,14 +94,7 @@ Noddy_name(Noddy* self) return NULL; } - args = Py_BuildValue("OO", self->first, self->last); - if (args == NULL) - return NULL; - - result = PyUnicode_Format(format, args); - Py_DECREF(args); - - return result; + return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Noddy_methods[] = { @@ -145,12 +127,12 @@ static PyTypeObject NoddyType = { Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, /* tp_flags */ "Noddy objects", /* tp_doc */ - 0, /* tp_traverse */ - 0, /* tp_clear */ - 0, /* tp_richcompare */ - 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ - 0, /* tp_iter */ - 0, /* tp_iternext */ + 0, /* tp_traverse */ + 0, /* tp_clear */ + 0, /* tp_richcompare */ + 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ + 0, /* tp_iter */ + 0, /* tp_iternext */ Noddy_methods, /* tp_methods */ Noddy_members, /* tp_members */ 0, /* tp_getset */ @@ -173,7 +155,7 @@ static PyModuleDef noddy2module = { }; PyMODINIT_FUNC -PyInit_noddy2(void) +PyInit_noddy2(void) { PyObject* m; diff --git a/Doc/includes/noddy3.c b/Doc/includes/noddy3.c index 89f3a77..8a5a753 100644 --- a/Doc/includes/noddy3.c +++ b/Doc/includes/noddy3.c @@ -24,18 +24,16 @@ Noddy_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) self = (Noddy *)type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->first == NULL) - { + if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } - + } + self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->last == NULL) - { + if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } + } self->number = 0; } @@ -50,10 +48,10 @@ Noddy_init(Noddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; - if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|SSi", kwlist, - &first, &last, + if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|SSi", kwlist, + &first, &last, &self->number)) - return -1; + return -1; if (first) { tmp = self->first; @@ -88,22 +86,22 @@ Noddy_getfirst(Noddy *self, void *closure) static int Noddy_setfirst(Noddy *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { - if (value == NULL) { - PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute"); - return -1; - } - - if (! PyUnicode_Check(value)) { - PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, - "The first attribute value must be a string"); - return -1; - } - - Py_DECREF(self->first); - Py_INCREF(value); - self->first = value; - - return 0; + if (value == NULL) { + PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute"); + return -1; + } + + if (! PyUnicode_Check(value)) { + PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, + "The first attribute value must be a string"); + return -1; + } + + Py_DECREF(self->first); + Py_INCREF(value); + self->first = value; + + return 0; } static PyObject * @@ -116,30 +114,30 @@ Noddy_getlast(Noddy *self, void *closure) static int Noddy_setlast(Noddy *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { - if (value == NULL) { - PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute"); - return -1; - } - - if (! PyUnicode_Check(value)) { - PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, - "The last attribute value must be a string"); - return -1; - } - - Py_DECREF(self->last); - Py_INCREF(value); - self->last = value; - - return 0; + if (value == NULL) { + PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute"); + return -1; + } + + if (! PyUnicode_Check(value)) { + PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, + "The last attribute value must be a string"); + return -1; + } + + Py_DECREF(self->last); + Py_INCREF(value); + self->last = value; + + return 0; } static PyGetSetDef Noddy_getseters[] = { - {"first", + {"first", (getter)Noddy_getfirst, (setter)Noddy_setfirst, "first name", NULL}, - {"last", + {"last", (getter)Noddy_getlast, (setter)Noddy_setlast, "last name", NULL}, @@ -149,23 +147,7 @@ static PyGetSetDef Noddy_getseters[] = { static PyObject * Noddy_name(Noddy* self) { - static PyObject *format = NULL; - PyObject *args, *result; - - if (format == NULL) { - format = PyUnicode_FromString("%s %s"); - if (format == NULL) - return NULL; - } - - args = Py_BuildValue("OO", self->first, self->last); - if (args == NULL) - return NULL; - - result = PyUnicode_Format(format, args); - Py_DECREF(args); - - return result; + return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Noddy_methods[] = { @@ -198,12 +180,12 @@ static PyTypeObject NoddyType = { Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, /* tp_flags */ "Noddy objects", /* tp_doc */ - 0, /* tp_traverse */ - 0, /* tp_clear */ - 0, /* tp_richcompare */ - 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ - 0, /* tp_iter */ - 0, /* tp_iternext */ + 0, /* tp_traverse */ + 0, /* tp_clear */ + 0, /* tp_richcompare */ + 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ + 0, /* tp_iter */ + 0, /* tp_iternext */ Noddy_methods, /* tp_methods */ Noddy_members, /* tp_members */ Noddy_getseters, /* tp_getset */ @@ -226,7 +208,7 @@ static PyModuleDef noddy3module = { }; PyMODINIT_FUNC -PyInit_noddy3(void) +PyInit_noddy3(void) { PyObject* m; diff --git a/Doc/includes/noddy4.c b/Doc/includes/noddy4.c index 6a96fac..eb9622a 100644 --- a/Doc/includes/noddy4.c +++ b/Doc/includes/noddy4.c @@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ Noddy_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) return 0; } -static int +static int Noddy_clear(Noddy *self) { PyObject *tmp; @@ -58,18 +58,16 @@ Noddy_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) self = (Noddy *)type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->first == NULL) - { + if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } - + } + self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); - if (self->last == NULL) - { + if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; - } + } self->number = 0; } @@ -84,10 +82,10 @@ Noddy_init(Noddy *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; - if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, - &first, &last, + if (! PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, + &first, &last, &self->number)) - return -1; + return -1; if (first) { tmp = self->first; @@ -120,15 +118,6 @@ static PyMemberDef Noddy_members[] = { static PyObject * Noddy_name(Noddy* self) { - static PyObject *format = NULL; - PyObject *args, *result; - - if (format == NULL) { - format = PyUnicode_FromString("%s %s"); - if (format == NULL) - return NULL; - } - if (self->first == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first"); return NULL; @@ -139,14 +128,7 @@ Noddy_name(Noddy* self) return NULL; } - args = Py_BuildValue("OO", self->first, self->last); - if (args == NULL) - return NULL; - - result = PyUnicode_Format(format, args); - Py_DECREF(args); - - return result; + return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Noddy_methods[] = { @@ -182,10 +164,10 @@ static PyTypeObject NoddyType = { "Noddy objects", /* tp_doc */ (traverseproc)Noddy_traverse, /* tp_traverse */ (inquiry)Noddy_clear, /* tp_clear */ - 0, /* tp_richcompare */ - 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ - 0, /* tp_iter */ - 0, /* tp_iternext */ + 0, /* tp_richcompare */ + 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ + 0, /* tp_iter */ + 0, /* tp_iternext */ Noddy_methods, /* tp_methods */ Noddy_members, /* tp_members */ 0, /* tp_getset */ @@ -208,7 +190,7 @@ static PyModuleDef noddy4module = { }; PyMODINIT_FUNC -PyInit_noddy4(void) +PyInit_noddy4(void) { PyObject* m; diff --git a/Doc/library/_thread.rst b/Doc/library/_thread.rst index 369e9cd..751c3e8 100644 --- a/Doc/library/_thread.rst +++ b/Doc/library/_thread.rst @@ -35,6 +35,9 @@ It defines the following constants and functions: Raised on thread-specific errors. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This is now a synonym of the built-in :exc:`RuntimeError`. + .. data:: LockType @@ -91,7 +94,7 @@ It defines the following constants and functions: *size* argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768 (32kB). If changing the thread stack size is - unsupported, a :exc:`ThreadError` is raised. If the specified stack size is + unsupported, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised. If the specified stack size is invalid, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised and the stack size is unmodified. 32kB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself. Note that some platforms may have diff --git a/Doc/library/abc.rst b/Doc/library/abc.rst index 1048b24..dca6993 100644 --- a/Doc/library/abc.rst +++ b/Doc/library/abc.rst @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on ABCs.) The :mod:`collections` module has some concrete classes that derive from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived. In addition the -:mod:`collections` module has some ABCs that can be used to test whether +:mod:`collections.abc` submodule has some ABCs that can be used to test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for example, is it hashable or a mapping. @@ -55,6 +55,9 @@ This module provides the following class: assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC) assert isinstance((), MyABC) + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Returns the registered subclass, to allow usage as a class decorator. + You can also override this method in an abstract base class: .. method:: __subclasshook__(subclass) @@ -124,19 +127,18 @@ This module provides the following class: available as a method of ``Foo``, so it is provided separately. -It also provides the following decorators: +The :mod:`abc` module also provides the following decorators: .. decorator:: abstractmethod(function) A decorator indicating abstract methods. - Using this decorator requires that the class's metaclass is :class:`ABCMeta` or - is derived from it. - A class that has a metaclass derived from :class:`ABCMeta` - cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods and - properties are overridden. - The abstract methods can be called using any of the normal 'super' call - mechanisms. + Using this decorator requires that the class's metaclass is :class:`ABCMeta` + or is derived from it. A class that has a metaclass derived from + :class:`ABCMeta` cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods + and properties are overridden. The abstract methods can be called using any + of the normal 'super' call mechanisms. :func:`abstractmethod` may be used + to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors. Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are not @@ -144,12 +146,52 @@ It also provides the following decorators: regular inheritance; "virtual subclasses" registered with the ABC's :meth:`register` method are not affected. - Usage:: + When :func:`abstractmethod` is applied in combination with other method + descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in + the following usage examples:: class C(metaclass=ABCMeta): @abstractmethod def my_abstract_method(self, ...): ... + @classmethod + @abstractmethod + def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, ...): + ... + @staticmethod + @abstractmethod + def my_abstract_staticmethod(...): + ... + + @property + @abstractmethod + def my_abstract_property(self): + ... + @my_abstract_property.setter + @abstractmethod + def my_abstract_property(self, val): + ... + + @abstractmethod + def _get_x(self): + ... + @abstractmethod + def _set_x(self, val): + ... + x = property(_get_x, _set_x) + + In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class machinery, + the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using + :attr:`__isabstractmethod__`. In general, this attribute should be ``True`` + if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For + example, Python's built-in property does the equivalent of:: + + class Descriptor: + ... + @property + def __isabstractmethod__(self): + return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for + f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel)) .. note:: @@ -174,6 +216,8 @@ It also provides the following decorators: ... .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use :class:`classmethod` with :func:`abstractmethod` instead. .. decorator:: abstractstaticmethod(function) @@ -189,18 +233,19 @@ It also provides the following decorators: ... .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use :class:`staticmethod` with :func:`abstractmethod` instead. -.. function:: abstractproperty(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) +.. decorator:: abstractproperty(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) A subclass of the built-in :func:`property`, indicating an abstract property. - Using this function requires that the class's metaclass is :class:`ABCMeta` or - is derived from it. - A class that has a metaclass derived from :class:`ABCMeta` cannot be - instantiated unless all of its abstract methods and properties are overridden. - The abstract properties can be called using any of the normal - 'super' call mechanisms. + Using this function requires that the class's metaclass is :class:`ABCMeta` + or is derived from it. A class that has a metaclass derived from + :class:`ABCMeta` cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods + and properties are overridden. The abstract properties can be called using + any of the normal 'super' call mechanisms. Usage:: @@ -217,6 +262,9 @@ It also provides the following decorators: def setx(self, value): ... x = abstractproperty(getx, setx) + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use :class:`property` with :func:`abstractmethod` instead + .. rubric:: Footnotes diff --git a/Doc/library/archiving.rst b/Doc/library/archiving.rst index 75d137c..c928494 100644 --- a/Doc/library/archiving.rst +++ b/Doc/library/archiving.rst @@ -5,8 +5,9 @@ Data Compression and Archiving ****************************** The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the zlib, -gzip, and bzip2 algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and tar-format archives. -See also :ref:`archiving-operations` provided by the :mod:`shutil` module. +gzip, bzip2 and lzma algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and tar-format +archives. See also :ref:`archiving-operations` provided by the :mod:`shutil` +module. .. toctree:: @@ -14,5 +15,6 @@ See also :ref:`archiving-operations` provided by the :mod:`shutil` module. zlib.rst gzip.rst bz2.rst + lzma.rst zipfile.rst tarfile.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/argparse.rst b/Doc/library/argparse.rst index 1313e4b..8987622 100644 --- a/Doc/library/argparse.rst +++ b/Doc/library/argparse.rst @@ -371,16 +371,16 @@ formatter_class ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ :class:`ArgumentParser` objects allow the help formatting to be customized by -specifying an alternate formatting class. Currently, there are three such +specifying an alternate formatting class. Currently, there are four such classes: .. class:: RawDescriptionHelpFormatter RawTextHelpFormatter ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter + MetavarTypeHelpFormatter -The first two allow more control over how textual descriptions are displayed, -while the last automatically adds information about argument default values. - +:class:`RawDescriptionHelpFormatter` and :class:`RawTextHelpFormatter` give +more control over how textual descriptions are displayed. By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects line-wrap the description_ and epilog_ texts in command-line help messages:: @@ -433,8 +433,8 @@ should not be line-wrapped:: :class:`RawTextHelpFormatter` maintains whitespace for all sorts of help text, including argument descriptions. -The other formatter class available, :class:`ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter`, -will add information about the default value of each of the arguments:: +:class:`ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter` automatically adds information about +default values to each of the argument help messages:: >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser( ... prog='PROG', @@ -451,6 +451,25 @@ will add information about the default value of each of the arguments:: -h, --help show this help message and exit --foo FOO FOO! (default: 42) +:class:`MetavarTypeHelpFormatter` uses the name of the type_ argument for each +argument as the display name for its values (rather than using the dest_ +as the regular formatter does):: + + >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser( + ... prog='PROG', + ... formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter) + >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int) + >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float) + >>> parser.print_help() + usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float + + positional arguments: + float + + optional arguments: + -h, --help show this help message and exit + --foo int + conflict_handler ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ diff --git a/Doc/library/array.rst b/Doc/library/array.rst index d563cce..8f6943a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/array.rst +++ b/Doc/library/array.rst @@ -14,36 +14,54 @@ them is constrained. The type is specified at object creation time by using a :dfn:`type code`, which is a single character. The following type codes are defined: -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| Type code | C Type | Python Type | Minimum size in bytes | -+===========+================+===================+=======================+ -| ``'b'`` | signed char | int | 1 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'B'`` | unsigned char | int | 1 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'u'`` | Py_UNICODE | Unicode character | 2 (see note) | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'h'`` | signed short | int | 2 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'H'`` | unsigned short | int | 2 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'i'`` | signed int | int | 2 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'I'`` | unsigned int | int | 2 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'l'`` | signed long | int | 4 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'L'`` | unsigned long | int | 4 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'f'`` | float | float | 4 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ -| ``'d'`` | double | float | 8 | -+-----------+----------------+-------------------+-----------------------+ - -.. note:: - - The ``'u'`` typecode corresponds to Python's unicode character. On narrow - Unicode builds this is 2-bytes, on wide builds this is 4-bytes. ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| Type code | C Type | Python Type | Minimum size in bytes | Notes | ++===========+====================+===================+=======================+=======+ +| ``'b'`` | signed char | int | 1 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'B'`` | unsigned char | int | 1 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'u'`` | Py_UNICODE | Unicode character | 2 | \(1) | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'h'`` | signed short | int | 2 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'H'`` | unsigned short | int | 2 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'i'`` | signed int | int | 2 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'I'`` | unsigned int | int | 2 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'l'`` | signed long | int | 4 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'L'`` | unsigned long | int | 4 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'q'`` | signed long long | int | 8 | \(2) | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'Q'`` | unsigned long long | int | 8 | \(2) | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'f'`` | float | float | 4 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ +| ``'d'`` | double | float | 8 | | ++-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+ + +Notes: + +(1) + The ``'u'`` type code corresponds to Python's obsolete unicode character + (:c:type:`Py_UNICODE` which is :c:type:`wchar_t`). Depending on the + platform, it can be 16 bits or 32 bits. + + ``'u'`` will be removed together with the rest of the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` + API. + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 4.0 + +(2) + The ``'q'`` and ``'Q'`` type codes are available only if + the platform C compiler used to build Python supports C :c:type:`long long`, + or, on Windows, :c:type:`__int64`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 The actual representation of values is determined by the machine architecture (strictly speaking, by the C implementation). The actual size can be accessed diff --git a/Doc/library/ast.rst b/Doc/library/ast.rst index e2c0b6d..16de3ca 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ast.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ast.rst @@ -96,9 +96,6 @@ Node classes Abstract Grammar ---------------- -The module defines a string constant ``__version__`` which is the decimal -Subversion revision number of the file shown below. - The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows: .. literalinclude:: ../../Parser/Python.asdl diff --git a/Doc/library/asynchat.rst b/Doc/library/asynchat.rst index 75b3cda..55c61d7 100644 --- a/Doc/library/asynchat.rst +++ b/Doc/library/asynchat.rst @@ -197,6 +197,9 @@ The :meth:`handle_request` method is called once all relevant input has been marshalled, after setting the channel terminator to ``None`` to ensure that any extraneous data sent by the web client are ignored. :: + + import asynchat + class http_request_handler(asynchat.async_chat): def __init__(self, sock, addr, sessions, log): diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncore.rst b/Doc/library/asyncore.rst index 619b7bb..7cacca1 100644 --- a/Doc/library/asyncore.rst +++ b/Doc/library/asyncore.rst @@ -184,12 +184,15 @@ any that have been added to the map during asynchronous service) is closed. Most of these are nearly identical to their socket partners. - .. method:: create_socket(family, type) + .. method:: create_socket(family=socket.AF_INET, type=socket.SOCK_STREAM) This is identical to the creation of a normal socket, and will use the same options for creation. Refer to the :mod:`socket` documentation for information on creating sockets. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *family* and *type* arguments can be omitted. + .. method:: connect(address) @@ -274,13 +277,13 @@ asyncore Example basic HTTP client Here is a very basic HTTP client that uses the :class:`dispatcher` class to implement its socket handling:: - import asyncore, socket + import asyncore class HTTPClient(asyncore.dispatcher): def __init__(self, host, path): asyncore.dispatcher.__init__(self) - self.create_socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) + self.create_socket() self.connect( (host, 80) ) self.buffer = bytes('GET %s HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: %s\r\n\r\n' % (path, host), 'ascii') @@ -314,7 +317,6 @@ Here is a basic echo server that uses the :class:`dispatcher` class to accept connections and dispatches the incoming connections to a handler:: import asyncore - import socket class EchoHandler(asyncore.dispatcher_with_send): @@ -327,7 +329,7 @@ connections and dispatches the incoming connections to a handler:: def __init__(self, host, port): asyncore.dispatcher.__init__(self) - self.create_socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) + self.create_socket() self.set_reuse_addr() self.bind((host, port)) self.listen(5) @@ -338,4 +340,3 @@ connections and dispatches the incoming connections to a handler:: server = EchoServer('localhost', 8080) asyncore.loop() - diff --git a/Doc/library/atexit.rst b/Doc/library/atexit.rst index 7c76bab..2e22cab 100644 --- a/Doc/library/atexit.rst +++ b/Doc/library/atexit.rst @@ -9,13 +9,14 @@ The :mod:`atexit` module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup functions. Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal -interpreter termination. The order in which the functions are called is not -defined; if you have cleanup operations that depend on each other, you should -wrap them in a function and register that one. This keeps :mod:`atexit` simple. +interpreter termination. :mod:`atexit` runs these functions in the *reverse* +order in which they were registered; if you register ``A``, ``B``, and ``C``, +at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order ``C``, ``B``, +``A``. -Note: the functions registered via this module are not called when the program -is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal internal error -is detected, or when :func:`os._exit` is called. +**Note:** The functions registered via this module are not called when the +program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal +internal error is detected, or when :func:`os._exit` is called. .. function:: register(func, *args, **kargs) @@ -67,8 +68,9 @@ automatically when the program terminates without relying on the application making an explicit call into this module at termination. :: try: - _count = int(open("/tmp/counter").read()) - except IOError: + with open("/tmp/counter") as infile: + _count = int(infile.read()) + except FileNotFoundError: _count = 0 def incrcounter(n): @@ -76,7 +78,8 @@ making an explicit call into this module at termination. :: _count = _count + n def savecounter(): - open("/tmp/counter", "w").write("%d" % _count) + with open("/tmp/counter", "w") as outfile: + outfile.write("%d" % _count) import atexit atexit.register(savecounter) diff --git a/Doc/library/base64.rst b/Doc/library/base64.rst index c08df15..ade0f07 100644 --- a/Doc/library/base64.rst +++ b/Doc/library/base64.rst @@ -18,9 +18,14 @@ POST request. The encoding algorithm is not the same as the There are two interfaces provided by this module. The modern interface supports encoding and decoding ASCII byte string objects using all three -alphabets. The legacy interface provides for encoding and decoding to and from -file-like objects as well as byte strings, but only using the Base64 standard -alphabet. +alphabets. Additionally, the decoding functions of the modern interface also +accept Unicode strings containing only ASCII characters. The legacy interface +provides for encoding and decoding to and from file-like objects as well as +byte strings, but only using the Base64 standard alphabet. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of + the modern interface. The modern interface provides: diff --git a/Doc/library/binary.rst b/Doc/library/binary.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..51fbdc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/binary.rst @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +.. _binaryservices: + +******************** +Binary Data Services +******************** + +The modules described in this chapter provide some basic services operations +for manipulation of binary data. Other operations on binary data, specifically +in relation to file formats and network protocols, are described in the +relevant sections. + +Some libraries described under :ref:`textservices` also work with either +ASCII-compatible binary formats (for example, :mod:`re`) or all binary data +(for example, :mod:`difflib`). + +In addition, see the documentation for Python's built-in binary data types in +:ref:`binaryseq`. + +.. toctree:: + + struct.rst + codecs.rst + diff --git a/Doc/library/binascii.rst b/Doc/library/binascii.rst index 2aa3702..baf430d 100644 --- a/Doc/library/binascii.rst +++ b/Doc/library/binascii.rst @@ -20,8 +20,13 @@ higher-level modules. .. note:: - Encoding and decoding functions do not accept Unicode strings. Only bytestring - and bytearray objects can be processed. + ``a2b_*`` functions accept Unicode strings containing only ASCII characters. + Other functions only accept bytes and bytes-compatible objects (such as + bytearray objects and other objects implementing the buffer API). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted by the ``a2b_*`` functions. + The :mod:`binascii` module defines the following functions: diff --git a/Doc/library/bz2.rst b/Doc/library/bz2.rst index 93144b6..d06a39a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/bz2.rst +++ b/Doc/library/bz2.rst @@ -1,201 +1,202 @@ -:mod:`bz2` --- Compression compatible with :program:`bzip2` -=========================================================== +:mod:`bz2` --- Support for :program:`bzip2` compression +======================================================= .. module:: bz2 - :synopsis: Interface to compression and decompression routines - compatible with bzip2. + :synopsis: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression. .. moduleauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com> +.. moduleauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com> .. sectionauthor:: Gustavo Niemeyer <niemeyer@conectiva.com> +.. sectionauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com> -This module provides a comprehensive interface for the bz2 compression library. -It implements a complete file interface, one-shot (de)compression functions, and -types for sequential (de)compression. +This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and +decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm. -Here is a summary of the features offered by the bz2 module: +The :mod:`bz2` module contains: -* :class:`BZ2File` class implements a complete file interface, including - :meth:`~BZ2File.readline`, :meth:`~BZ2File.readlines`, - :meth:`~BZ2File.writelines`, :meth:`~BZ2File.seek`, etc; +* The :func:`.open` function and :class:`BZ2File` class for reading and + writing compressed files. +* The :class:`BZ2Compressor` and :class:`BZ2Decompressor` classes for + incremental (de)compression. +* The :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` functions for one-shot + (de)compression. -* :class:`BZ2File` class implements emulated :meth:`~BZ2File.seek` support; - -* :class:`BZ2File` class implements universal newline support; - -* :class:`BZ2File` class offers an optimized line iteration using a readahead - algorithm; - -* Sequential (de)compression supported by :class:`BZ2Compressor` and - :class:`BZ2Decompressor` classes; - -* One-shot (de)compression supported by :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` - functions; - -* Thread safety uses individual locking mechanism. +All of the classes in this module may safely be accessed from multiple threads. (De)compression of files ------------------------ -Handling of compressed files is offered by the :class:`BZ2File` class. +.. function:: open(filename, mode='r', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None) + Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file + object`. -.. index:: - single: universal newlines; bz2.BZ2File class + As with the constructor for :class:`BZ2File`, the *filename* argument can be + an actual filename (a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object), or an existing + file object to read from or write to. -.. class:: BZ2File(filename, mode='r', buffering=0, compresslevel=9) + The *mode* argument can be any of ``'r'``, ``'rb'``, ``'w'``, ``'wb'``, + ``'a'``, or ``'ab'`` for binary mode, or ``'rt'``, ``'wt'``, or ``'at'`` for + text mode. The default is ``'rb'``. - Open a bz2 file. Mode can be either ``'r'`` or ``'w'``, for reading (default) - or writing. When opened for writing, the file will be created if it doesn't - exist, and truncated otherwise. If *buffering* is given, ``0`` means - unbuffered, and larger numbers specify the buffer size; the default is - ``0``. If *compresslevel* is given, it must be a number between ``1`` and - ``9``; the default is ``9``. Add a ``'U'`` to mode to open the file for input - in :term:`universal newlines` mode. Any line ending in the input file will be - seen as a ``'\n'`` in Python. Also, a file so opened gains the attribute - :attr:`newlines`; the value for this attribute is one of ``None`` (no newline - read yet), ``'\r'``, ``'\n'``, ``'\r\n'`` or a tuple containing all the - newline types seen. Universal newlines are available only when - reading. Instances support iteration in the same way as normal :class:`file` - instances. + The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the + :class:`BZ2File` constructor. - :class:`BZ2File` supports the :keyword:`with` statement. + For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`BZ2File` + constructor: ``BZ2File(filename, mode, compresslevel=compresslevel)``. In + this case, the *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be + provided. - .. versionchanged:: 3.1 - Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added. + For text mode, a :class:`BZ2File` object is created, and wrapped in an + :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error + handling behavior, and line ending(s). + .. versionadded:: 3.3 - .. note:: - This class does not support input files containing multiple streams (such - as those produced by the :program:`pbzip2` tool). When reading such an - input file, only the first stream will be accessible. If you require - support for multi-stream files, consider using the third-party - :mod:`bz2file` module (available from - `PyPI <http://pypi.python.org/pypi/bz2file>`_). This module provides a - backport of Python 3.3's :class:`BZ2File` class, which does support - multi-stream files. +.. class:: BZ2File(filename, mode='r', buffering=None, compresslevel=9) + Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode. - .. method:: close() + If *filename* is a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object, open the named file + directly. Otherwise, *filename* should be a :term:`file object`, which will + be used to read or write the compressed data. - Close the file. Sets data attribute :attr:`closed` to true. A closed file - cannot be used for further I/O operations. :meth:`close` may be called - more than once without error. + The *mode* argument can be either ``'r'`` for reading (default), ``'w'`` for + overwriting, or ``'a'`` for appending. These can equivalently be given as + ``'rb'``, ``'wb'``, and ``'ab'`` respectively. + If *filename* is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of + ``'w'`` does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to ``'a'``. - .. method:: read([size]) + The *buffering* argument is ignored. Its use is deprecated. - Read at most *size* uncompressed bytes, returned as a byte string. If the - *size* argument is negative or omitted, read until EOF is reached. + If *mode* is ``'w'`` or ``'a'``, *compresslevel* can be a number between + ``1`` and ``9`` specifying the level of compression: ``1`` produces the + least compression, and ``9`` (default) produces the most compression. + If *mode* is ``'r'``, the input file may be the concatenation of multiple + compressed streams. - .. method:: readline([size]) + :class:`BZ2File` provides all of the members specified by the + :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`, except for :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate`. + Iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement are supported. - Return the next line from the file, as a byte string, retaining newline. - A non-negative *size* argument limits the maximum number of bytes to - return (an incomplete line may be returned then). Return an empty byte - string at EOF. + :class:`BZ2File` also provides the following method: + .. method:: peek([n]) - .. method:: readlines([size]) + Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one + byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The exact number of bytes + returned is unspecified. - Return a list of lines read. The optional *size* argument, if given, is an - approximate bound on the total number of bytes in the lines returned. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. versionchanged:: 3.1 + Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added. - .. method:: seek(offset[, whence]) + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The :meth:`fileno`, :meth:`readable`, :meth:`seekable`, :meth:`writable`, + :meth:`read1` and :meth:`readinto` methods were added. - Move to new file position. Argument *offset* is a byte count. Optional - argument *whence* defaults to ``os.SEEK_SET`` or ``0`` (offset from start - of file; offset should be ``>= 0``); other values are ``os.SEEK_CUR`` or - ``1`` (move relative to current position; offset can be positive or - negative), and ``os.SEEK_END`` or ``2`` (move relative to end of file; - offset is usually negative, although many platforms allow seeking beyond - the end of a file). + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support was added for *filename* being a :term:`file object` instead of an + actual filename. - Note that seeking of bz2 files is emulated, and depending on the - parameters the operation may be extremely slow. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The ``'a'`` (append) mode was added, along with support for reading + multi-stream files. - .. method:: tell() +Incremental (de)compression +--------------------------- - Return the current file position, an integer. +.. class:: BZ2Compressor(compresslevel=9) + Create a new compressor object. This object may be used to compress data + incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the :func:`compress` function + instead. - .. method:: write(data) + *compresslevel*, if given, must be a number between ``1`` and ``9``. The + default is ``9``. - Write the byte string *data* to file. Note that due to buffering, - :meth:`close` may be needed before the file on disk reflects the data - written. + .. method:: compress(data) + Provide data to the compressor object. Returns a chunk of compressed data + if possible, or an empty byte string otherwise. - .. method:: writelines(sequence_of_byte_strings) + When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call the + :meth:`flush` method to finish the compression process. - Write the sequence of byte strings to the file. Note that newlines are not - added. The sequence can be any iterable object producing byte strings. - This is equivalent to calling write() for each byte string. + .. method:: flush() -Sequential (de)compression --------------------------- + Finish the compression process. Returns the compressed data left in + internal buffers. -Sequential compression and decompression is done using the classes -:class:`BZ2Compressor` and :class:`BZ2Decompressor`. + The compressor object may not be used after this method has been called. -.. class:: BZ2Compressor(compresslevel=9) +.. class:: BZ2Decompressor() - Create a new compressor object. This object may be used to compress data - sequentially. If you want to compress data in one shot, use the - :func:`compress` function instead. The *compresslevel* parameter, if given, - must be a number between ``1`` and ``9``; the default is ``9``. + Create a new decompressor object. This object may be used to decompress data + incrementally. For one-shot compression, use the :func:`decompress` function + instead. - .. method:: compress(data) + .. note:: + This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple + compressed streams, unlike :func:`decompress` and :class:`BZ2File`. If + you need to decompress a multi-stream input with :class:`BZ2Decompressor`, + you must use a new decompressor for each stream. - Provide more data to the compressor object. It will return chunks of - compressed data whenever possible. When you've finished providing data to - compress, call the :meth:`flush` method to finish the compression process, - and return what is left in internal buffers. + .. method:: decompress(data) + Provide data to the decompressor object. Returns a chunk of decompressed + data if possible, or an empty byte string otherwise. - .. method:: flush() + Attempting to decompress data after the end of the current stream is + reached raises an :exc:`EOFError`. If any data is found after the end of + the stream, it is ignored and saved in the :attr:`unused_data` attribute. - Finish the compression process and return what is left in internal - buffers. You must not use the compressor object after calling this method. + .. attribute:: eof -.. class:: BZ2Decompressor() + True if the end-of-stream marker has been reached. - Create a new decompressor object. This object may be used to decompress data - sequentially. If you want to decompress data in one shot, use the - :func:`decompress` function instead. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 - .. method:: decompress(data) - Provide more data to the decompressor object. It will return chunks of - decompressed data whenever possible. If you try to decompress data after - the end of stream is found, :exc:`EOFError` will be raised. If any data - was found after the end of stream, it'll be ignored and saved in - :attr:`unused_data` attribute. + .. attribute:: unused_data + + Data found after the end of the compressed stream. + + If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has been + reached, its value will be ``b''``. One-shot (de)compression ------------------------ -One-shot compression and decompression is provided through the :func:`compress` -and :func:`decompress` functions. +.. function:: compress(data, compresslevel=9) + Compress *data*. -.. function:: compress(data, compresslevel=9) + *compresslevel*, if given, must be a number between ``1`` and ``9``. The + default is ``9``. - Compress *data* in one shot. If you want to compress data sequentially, use - an instance of :class:`BZ2Compressor` instead. The *compresslevel* parameter, - if given, must be a number between ``1`` and ``9``; the default is ``9``. + For incremental compression, use a :class:`BZ2Compressor` instead. .. function:: decompress(data) - Decompress *data* in one shot. If you want to decompress data sequentially, - use an instance of :class:`BZ2Decompressor` instead. + Decompress *data*. + + If *data* is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams, decompress + all of the streams. + + For incremental decompression, use a :class:`BZ2Decompressor` instead. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for multi-stream inputs was added. diff --git a/Doc/library/chunk.rst b/Doc/library/chunk.rst index d3558a4..c1ba497 100644 --- a/Doc/library/chunk.rst +++ b/Doc/library/chunk.rst @@ -84,8 +84,9 @@ instance will fail with a :exc:`EOFError` exception. Close and skip to the end of the chunk. This does not close the underlying file. - The remaining methods will raise :exc:`IOError` if called after the - :meth:`close` method has been called. + The remaining methods will raise :exc:`OSError` if called after the + :meth:`close` method has been called. Before Python 3.3, they used to + raise :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: isatty() diff --git a/Doc/library/cmd.rst b/Doc/library/cmd.rst index 943c04a..9722928 100644 --- a/Doc/library/cmd.rst +++ b/Doc/library/cmd.rst @@ -285,8 +285,8 @@ immediate playback:: def do_playback(self, arg): 'Playback commands from a file: PLAYBACK rose.cmd' self.close() - cmds = open(arg).read().splitlines() - self.cmdqueue.extend(cmds) + with open(arg) as f: + self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines()) def precmd(self, line): line = line.lower() if self.file and 'playback' not in line: diff --git a/Doc/library/codecs.rst b/Doc/library/codecs.rst index 762bb98..071fc23 100644 --- a/Doc/library/codecs.rst +++ b/Doc/library/codecs.rst @@ -458,7 +458,8 @@ define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry. .. method:: reset() - Reset the encoder to the initial state. + Reset the encoder to the initial state. The output is discarded: call + ``.encode('', final=True)`` to reset the encoder and to get the output. .. method:: IncrementalEncoder.getstate() @@ -786,11 +787,9 @@ methods and attributes from the underlying stream. Encodings and Unicode --------------------- -Strings are stored internally as sequences of codepoints (to be precise -as :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` arrays). Depending on the way Python is compiled (either -via ``--without-wide-unicode`` or ``--with-wide-unicode``, with the -former being the default) :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` is either a 16-bit or 32-bit data -type. Once a string object is used outside of CPU and memory, CPU endianness +Strings are stored internally as sequences of codepoints in range ``0 - 10FFFF`` +(see :pep:`393` for more details about the implementation). +Once a string object is used outside of CPU and memory, CPU endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an issue. Transforming a string object into a sequence of bytes is called encoding and recreating the string object from the sequence of bytes is known as decoding. There are many @@ -901,6 +900,15 @@ is meant to be exhaustive. Notice that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore, e.g. ``'utf-8'`` is a valid alias for the ``'utf_8'`` codec. +.. impl-detail:: + + Some common encodings can bypass the codecs lookup machinery to + improve performance. These optimization opportunities are only + recognized by CPython for a limited set of aliases: utf-8, utf8, + latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, mbcs (Windows only), ascii, utf-16, + and utf-32. Using alternative spellings for these encodings may + result in slower execution. + Many of the character sets support the same languages. They vary in individual characters (e.g. whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not), and in the assignment of characters to code positions. For the European languages in @@ -1003,6 +1011,11 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist: +-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ | cp1258 | windows-1258 | Vietnamese | +-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ +| cp65001 | | Windows only: Windows UTF-8 | +| | | (``CP_UTF8``) | +| | | | +| | | .. versionadded:: 3.3 | ++-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ | euc_jp | eucjp, ujis, u-jis | Japanese | +-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ | euc_jis_2004 | jisx0213, eucjis2004 | Japanese | @@ -1160,6 +1173,8 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist: | unicode_internal | | Return the internal | | | | representation of the | | | | operand | +| | | | +| | | .. deprecated:: 3.3 | +--------------------+---------+---------------------------+ The following codecs provide bytes-to-bytes mappings. @@ -1272,12 +1287,13 @@ functions can be used directly if desired. .. module:: encodings.mbcs :synopsis: Windows ANSI codepage -Encode operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP). This codec only -supports ``'strict'`` and ``'replace'`` error handlers to encode, and -``'strict'`` and ``'ignore'`` error handlers to decode. +Encode operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP). Availability: Windows only. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support any error handler. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Before 3.2, the *errors* argument was ignored; ``'replace'`` was always used to encode, and ``'ignore'`` to decode. diff --git a/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst b/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9873489 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ +:mod:`collections.abc` --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers +=============================================================== + +.. module:: collections.abc + :synopsis: Abstract base classes for containers +.. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com> +.. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com> + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + Formerly, this module was part of the :mod:`collections` module. + +.. testsetup:: * + + from collections import * + import itertools + __name__ = '<doctest>' + +**Source code:** :source:`Lib/collections/abc.py` + +-------------- + +This module provides :term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>` that +can be used to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for +example, whether it is hashable or whether it is a mapping. + + +.. _collections-abstract-base-classes: + +Collections Abstract Base Classes +--------------------------------- + +The collections module offers the following :term:`ABCs <abstract base class>`: + +========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== +ABC Inherits from Abstract Methods Mixin Methods +========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== +:class:`Container` ``__contains__`` +:class:`Hashable` ``__hash__`` +:class:`Iterable` ``__iter__`` +:class:`Iterator` :class:`Iterable` ``__next__`` ``__iter__`` +:class:`Sized` ``__len__`` +:class:`Callable` ``__call__`` + +:class:`Sequence` :class:`Sized`, ``__getitem__`` ``__contains__``, ``__iter__``, ``__reversed__``, + :class:`Iterable`, ``index``, and ``count`` + :class:`Container` + +:class:`MutableSequence` :class:`Sequence` ``__setitem__``, Inherited :class:`Sequence` methods and + ``__delitem__``, ``append``, ``reverse``, ``extend``, ``pop``, + ``insert`` ``remove``, ``clear``, and ``__iadd__`` + +:class:`Set` :class:`Sized`, ``__le__``, ``__lt__``, ``__eq__``, ``__ne__``, + :class:`Iterable`, ``__gt__``, ``__ge__``, ``__and__``, ``__or__``, + :class:`Container` ``__sub__``, ``__xor__``, and ``isdisjoint`` + +:class:`MutableSet` :class:`Set` ``add``, Inherited :class:`Set` methods and + ``discard`` ``clear``, ``pop``, ``remove``, ``__ior__``, + ``__iand__``, ``__ixor__``, and ``__isub__`` + +:class:`Mapping` :class:`Sized`, ``__getitem__`` ``__contains__``, ``keys``, ``items``, ``values``, + :class:`Iterable`, ``get``, ``__eq__``, and ``__ne__`` + :class:`Container` + +:class:`MutableMapping` :class:`Mapping` ``__setitem__``, Inherited :class:`Mapping` methods and + ``__delitem__`` ``pop``, ``popitem``, ``clear``, ``update``, + and ``setdefault`` + + +:class:`MappingView` :class:`Sized` ``__len__`` +:class:`ItemsView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``, + :class:`Set` ``__iter__`` +:class:`KeysView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``, + :class:`Set` ``__iter__`` +:class:`ValuesView` :class:`MappingView` ``__contains__``, ``__iter__`` +========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== + + +.. class:: Container + Hashable + Sized + Callable + + ABCs for classes that provide respectively the methods :meth:`__contains__`, + :meth:`__hash__`, :meth:`__len__`, and :meth:`__call__`. + +.. class:: Iterable + + ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`__iter__` method. + See also the definition of :term:`iterable`. + +.. class:: Iterator + + ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`__iter__` and :meth:`next` methods. + See also the definition of :term:`iterator`. + +.. class:: Sequence + MutableSequence + + ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`sequences <sequence>`. + +.. class:: Set + MutableSet + + ABCs for read-only and mutable sets. + +.. class:: Mapping + MutableMapping + + ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`. + +.. class:: MappingView + ItemsView + KeysView + ValuesView + + ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values :term:`views <view>`. + + +These ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide +particular functionality, for example:: + + size = None + if isinstance(myvar, collections.Sized): + size = len(myvar) + +Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop +classes supporting container APIs. For example, to write a class supporting +the full :class:`Set` API, it only necessary to supply the three underlying +abstract methods: :meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`__iter__`, and :meth:`__len__`. +The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as :meth:`__and__` and +:meth:`isdisjoint` :: + + class ListBasedSet(collections.Set): + ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed + and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. ''' + def __init__(self, iterable): + self.elements = lst = [] + for value in iterable: + if value not in lst: + lst.append(value) + def __iter__(self): + return iter(self.elements) + def __contains__(self, value): + return value in self.elements + def __len__(self): + return len(self.elements) + + s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef') + s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi') + overlap = s1 & s2 # The __and__() method is supported automatically + +Notes on using :class:`Set` and :class:`MutableSet` as a mixin: + +(1) + Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need + a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is + assumed to have a signature in the form ``ClassName(iterable)``. + That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called + :meth:`_from_iterable` which calls ``cls(iterable)`` to produce a new set. + If the :class:`Set` mixin is being used in a class with a different + constructor signature, you will need to override :meth:`_from_iterable` + with a classmethod that can construct new instances from + an iterable argument. + +(2) + To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the + semantics are fixed), redefine :meth:`__le__` and + then the other operations will automatically follow suit. + +(3) + The :class:`Set` mixin provides a :meth:`_hash` method to compute a hash value + for the set; however, :meth:`__hash__` is not defined because not all sets + are hashable or immutable. To add set hashabilty using mixins, + inherit from both :meth:`Set` and :meth:`Hashable`, then define + ``__hash__ = Set._hash``. + +.. seealso:: + + * `OrderedSet recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/>`_ for an + example built on :class:`MutableSet`. + + * For more about ABCs, see the :mod:`abc` module and :pep:`3119`. diff --git a/Doc/library/collections.rst b/Doc/library/collections.rst index 57e0481..dc76ea5 100644 --- a/Doc/library/collections.rst +++ b/Doc/library/collections.rst @@ -2,17 +2,17 @@ ========================================== .. module:: collections - :synopsis: Container datatypes + :synopsis: Container datatypes .. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com> .. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python@rcn.com> .. testsetup:: * - from collections import * - import itertools - __name__ = '<doctest>' + from collections import * + import itertools + __name__ = '<doctest>' -**Source code:** :source:`Lib/collections.py` and :source:`Lib/_abcoll.py` +**Source code:** :source:`Lib/collections/__init__.py` -------------- @@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ Python's general purpose built-in containers, :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, ===================== ==================================================================== :func:`namedtuple` factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields :class:`deque` list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end +:class:`ChainMap` dict-like class for creating a single view of multiple mappings :class:`Counter` dict subclass for counting hashable objects :class:`OrderedDict` dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added :class:`defaultdict` dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values @@ -31,10 +32,167 @@ Python's general purpose built-in containers, :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, :class:`UserString` wrapper around string objects for easier string subclassing ===================== ==================================================================== -In addition to the concrete container classes, the collections module provides -:ref:`abstract base classes <collections-abstract-base-classes>` that can be -used to test whether a class provides a particular interface, for example, -whether it is hashable or a mapping. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Moved :ref:`collections-abstract-base-classes` to the :mod:`collections.abc` module. + For backwards compatibility, they continue to be visible in this module + as well. + + +:class:`ChainMap` objects +------------------------- + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +A :class:`ChainMap` class is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings +so they can be treated as a single unit. It is often much faster than creating +a new dictionary and running multiple :meth:`~dict.update` calls. + +The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating. + +.. class:: ChainMap(*maps) + + A :class:`ChainMap` groups multiple dicts or other mappings together to + create a single, updateable view. If no *maps* are specified, a single empty + dictionary is provided so that a new chain always has at least one mapping. + + The underlying mappings are stored in a list. That list is public and can + accessed or updated using the *maps* attribute. There is no other state. + + Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found. In + contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping. + + A :class:`ChainMap` incorporates the underlying mappings by reference. So, if + one of the underlying mappings gets updated, those changes will be reflected + in :class:`ChainMap`. + + All of the usual dictionary methods are supported. In addition, there is a + *maps* attribute, a method for creating new subcontexts, and a property for + accessing all but the first mapping: + + .. attribute:: maps + + A user updateable list of mappings. The list is ordered from + first-searched to last-searched. It is the only stored state and can + be modified to change which mappings are searched. The list should + always contain at least one mapping. + + .. method:: new_child() + + Returns a new :class:`ChainMap` containing a new :class:`dict` followed by + all of the maps in the current instance. A call to ``d.new_child()`` is + equivalent to: ``ChainMap({}, *d.maps)``. This method is used for + creating subcontexts that can be updated without altering values in any + of the parent mappings. + + .. attribute:: parents + + Property returning a new :class:`ChainMap` containing all of the maps in + the current instance except the first one. This is useful for skipping + the first map in the search. Use cases are similar to those for the + :keyword:`nonlocal` keyword used in :term:`nested scopes <nested + scope>`. The use cases also parallel those for the built-in + :func:`super` function. A reference to ``d.parents`` is equivalent to: + ``ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])``. + + +.. seealso:: + + * The `MultiContext class + <https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py>`_ + in the Enthought `CodeTools package + <https://github.com/enthought/codetools>`_ has options to support + writing to any mapping in the chain. + + * Django's `Context class + <http://code.djangoproject.com/browser/django/trunk/django/template/context.py>`_ + for templating is a read-only chain of mappings. It also features + pushing and popping of contexts similar to the + :meth:`~collections.ChainMap.new_child` method and the + :meth:`~collections.ChainMap.parents` property. + + * The `Nested Contexts recipe + <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434/>`_ has options to control + whether writes and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to + any mapping in the chain. + + * A `greatly simplified read-only version of Chainmap + <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/>`_. + + +:class:`ChainMap` Examples and Recipes +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +This section shows various approaches to working with chained maps. + + +Example of simulating Python's internal lookup chain:: + + import builtins + pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins)) + +Example of letting user specified command-line arguments take precedence over +environment variables which in turn take precedence over default values:: + + import os, argparse + + defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'} + + parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() + parser.add_argument('-u', '--user') + parser.add_argument('-c', '--color') + namespace = parser.parse_args() + command_line_args = {k:v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v} + + combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults) + print(combined['color']) + print(combined['user']) + +Example patterns for using the :class:`ChainMap` class to simulate nested +contexts:: + + c = ChainMap() # Create root context + d = c.new_child() # Create nested child context + e = c.new_child() # Child of c, independent from d + e.maps[0] # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals() + e.maps[-1] # Root context -- like Python's globals() + e.parents # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals + + d['x'] # Get first key in the chain of contexts + d['x'] = 1 # Set value in current context + del['x'] # Delete from current context + list(d) # All nested values + k in d # Check all nested values + len(d) # Number of nested values + d.items() # All nested items + dict(d) # Flatten into a regular dictionary + +The :class:`ChainMap` class only makes updates (writes and deletions) to the +first mapping in the chain while lookups will search the full chain. However, +if deep writes and deletions are desired, it is easy to make a subclass that +updates keys found deeper in the chain:: + + class DeepChainMap(ChainMap): + 'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes' + + def __setitem__(self, key, value): + for mapping in self.maps: + if key in mapping: + mapping[key] = value + return + self.maps[0][key] = value + + def __delitem__(self, key): + for mapping in self.maps: + if key in mapping: + del mapping[key] + return + raise KeyError(key) + + >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant' : 'blue'}, {'lion' : 'yellow'}) + >>> d['lion'] = 'orange' # update an existing key two levels down + >>> d['snake'] = 'red' # new keys get added to the topmost dict + >>> del d['elephant'] # remove an existing key one level down + DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'}) :class:`Counter` objects @@ -59,85 +217,85 @@ For example:: .. class:: Counter([iterable-or-mapping]) - A :class:`Counter` is a :class:`dict` subclass for counting hashable objects. - It is an unordered collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys - and their counts are stored as dictionary values. Counts are allowed to be - any integer value including zero or negative counts. The :class:`Counter` - class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages. + A :class:`Counter` is a :class:`dict` subclass for counting hashable objects. + It is an unordered collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys + and their counts are stored as dictionary values. Counts are allowed to be + any integer value including zero or negative counts. The :class:`Counter` + class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages. - Elements are counted from an *iterable* or initialized from another - *mapping* (or counter): + Elements are counted from an *iterable* or initialized from another + *mapping* (or counter): >>> c = Counter() # a new, empty counter >>> c = Counter('gallahad') # a new counter from an iterable >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2}) # a new counter from a mapping >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8) # a new counter from keyword args - Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return a zero - count for missing items instead of raising a :exc:`KeyError`: + Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return a zero + count for missing items instead of raising a :exc:`KeyError`: >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham']) >>> c['bacon'] # count of a missing element is zero 0 - Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter. - Use ``del`` to remove it entirely: + Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter. + Use ``del`` to remove it entirely: >>> c['sausage'] = 0 # counter entry with a zero count >>> del c['sausage'] # del actually removes the entry - .. versionadded:: 3.1 + .. versionadded:: 3.1 - Counter objects support three methods beyond those available for all - dictionaries: + Counter objects support three methods beyond those available for all + dictionaries: - .. method:: elements() + .. method:: elements() - Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its - count. Elements are returned in arbitrary order. If an element's count - is less than one, :meth:`elements` will ignore it. + Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its + count. Elements are returned in arbitrary order. If an element's count + is less than one, :meth:`elements` will ignore it. >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2) >>> list(c.elements()) ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b'] - .. method:: most_common([n]) + .. method:: most_common([n]) - Return a list of the *n* most common elements and their counts from the - most common to the least. If *n* is not specified, :func:`most_common` - returns *all* elements in the counter. Elements with equal counts are - ordered arbitrarily: + Return a list of the *n* most common elements and their counts from the + most common to the least. If *n* is not specified, :func:`most_common` + returns *all* elements in the counter. Elements with equal counts are + ordered arbitrarily: >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3) [('a', 5), ('r', 2), ('b', 2)] - .. method:: subtract([iterable-or-mapping]) + .. method:: subtract([iterable-or-mapping]) - Elements are subtracted from an *iterable* or from another *mapping* - (or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but subtracts counts instead - of replacing them. Both inputs and outputs may be zero or negative. + Elements are subtracted from an *iterable* or from another *mapping* + (or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but subtracts counts instead + of replacing them. Both inputs and outputs may be zero or negative. >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2) >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4) >>> c.subtract(d) Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6}) - .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionadded:: 3.2 - The usual dictionary methods are available for :class:`Counter` objects - except for two which work differently for counters. + The usual dictionary methods are available for :class:`Counter` objects + except for two which work differently for counters. - .. method:: fromkeys(iterable) + .. method:: fromkeys(iterable) - This class method is not implemented for :class:`Counter` objects. + This class method is not implemented for :class:`Counter` objects. - .. method:: update([iterable-or-mapping]) + .. method:: update([iterable-or-mapping]) - Elements are counted from an *iterable* or added-in from another - *mapping* (or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but adds counts - instead of replacing them. Also, the *iterable* is expected to be a - sequence of elements, not a sequence of ``(key, value)`` pairs. + Elements are counted from an *iterable* or added-in from another + *mapping* (or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but adds counts + instead of replacing them. Also, the *iterable* is expected to be a + sequence of elements, not a sequence of ``(key, value)`` pairs. Common patterns for working with :class:`Counter` objects:: @@ -149,7 +307,7 @@ Common patterns for working with :class:`Counter` objects:: c.items() # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs Counter(dict(list_of_pairs)) # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs c.most_common()[:-n:-1] # n least common elements - c += Counter() # remove zero and negative counts + +c # remove zero and negative counts Several mathematical operations are provided for combining :class:`Counter` objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts greater than zero). @@ -169,32 +327,44 @@ counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less. >>> c | d # union: max(c[x], d[x]) Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2}) +Unary addition and substraction are shortcuts for adding an empty counter +or subtracting from an empty counter. + + >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4) + >>> +c + Counter({'a': 2}) + >>> -c + Counter({'b': 4}) + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for unary plus, unary minus, and in-place multiset operations. + .. note:: - Counters were primarily designed to work with positive integers to represent - running counts; however, care was taken to not unnecessarily preclude use - cases needing other types or negative values. To help with those use cases, - this section documents the minimum range and type restrictions. + Counters were primarily designed to work with positive integers to represent + running counts; however, care was taken to not unnecessarily preclude use + cases needing other types or negative values. To help with those use cases, + this section documents the minimum range and type restrictions. - * The :class:`Counter` class itself is a dictionary subclass with no - restrictions on its keys and values. The values are intended to be numbers - representing counts, but you *could* store anything in the value field. + * The :class:`Counter` class itself is a dictionary subclass with no + restrictions on its keys and values. The values are intended to be numbers + representing counts, but you *could* store anything in the value field. - * The :meth:`most_common` method requires only that the values be orderable. + * The :meth:`most_common` method requires only that the values be orderable. - * For in-place operations such as ``c[key] += 1``, the value type need only - support addition and subtraction. So fractions, floats, and decimals would - work and negative values are supported. The same is also true for - :meth:`update` and :meth:`subtract` which allow negative and zero values - for both inputs and outputs. + * For in-place operations such as ``c[key] += 1``, the value type need only + support addition and subtraction. So fractions, floats, and decimals would + work and negative values are supported. The same is also true for + :meth:`update` and :meth:`subtract` which allow negative and zero values + for both inputs and outputs. - * The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with positive values. - The inputs may be negative or zero, but only outputs with positive values - are created. There are no type restrictions, but the value type needs to - support addition, subtraction, and comparison. + * The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with positive values. + The inputs may be negative or zero, but only outputs with positive values + are created. There are no type restrictions, but the value type needs to + support addition, subtraction, and comparison. - * The :meth:`elements` method requires integer counts. It ignores zero and - negative counts. + * The :meth:`elements` method requires integer counts. It ignores zero and + negative counts. .. seealso:: @@ -217,7 +387,7 @@ counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less. * To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given set of elements, see :func:`itertools.combinations_with_replacement`. - map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) --> AA AB AC BB BC CC + map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) --> AA AB AC BB BC CC :class:`deque` objects @@ -225,105 +395,105 @@ counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less. .. class:: deque([iterable, [maxlen]]) - Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using :meth:`append`) with - data from *iterable*. If *iterable* is not specified, the new deque is empty. + Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using :meth:`append`) with + data from *iterable*. If *iterable* is not specified, the new deque is empty. - Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced "deck" - and is short for "double-ended queue"). Deques support thread-safe, memory - efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the - same O(1) performance in either direction. + Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced "deck" + and is short for "double-ended queue"). Deques support thread-safe, memory + efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the + same O(1) performance in either direction. - Though :class:`list` objects support similar operations, they are optimized for - fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for - ``pop(0)`` and ``insert(0, v)`` operations which change both the size and - position of the underlying data representation. + Though :class:`list` objects support similar operations, they are optimized for + fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for + ``pop(0)`` and ``insert(0, v)`` operations which change both the size and + position of the underlying data representation. - If *maxlen* is not specified or is *None*, deques may grow to an - arbitrary length. Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified maximum - length. Once a bounded length deque is full, when new items are added, a - corresponding number of items are discarded from the opposite end. Bounded - length deques provide functionality similar to the ``tail`` filter in - Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data - where only the most recent activity is of interest. + If *maxlen* is not specified or is *None*, deques may grow to an + arbitrary length. Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified maximum + length. Once a bounded length deque is full, when new items are added, a + corresponding number of items are discarded from the opposite end. Bounded + length deques provide functionality similar to the ``tail`` filter in + Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data + where only the most recent activity is of interest. - Deque objects support the following methods: + Deque objects support the following methods: - .. method:: append(x) + .. method:: append(x) - Add *x* to the right side of the deque. + Add *x* to the right side of the deque. - .. method:: appendleft(x) + .. method:: appendleft(x) - Add *x* to the left side of the deque. + Add *x* to the left side of the deque. - .. method:: clear() + .. method:: clear() - Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0. + Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0. - .. method:: count(x) + .. method:: count(x) - Count the number of deque elements equal to *x*. + Count the number of deque elements equal to *x*. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. method:: extend(iterable) + .. method:: extend(iterable) - Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable - argument. + Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable + argument. - .. method:: extendleft(iterable) + .. method:: extendleft(iterable) - Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from *iterable*. - Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of - elements in the iterable argument. + Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from *iterable*. + Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of + elements in the iterable argument. - .. method:: pop() + .. method:: pop() - Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque. If no - elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`. + Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque. If no + elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`. - .. method:: popleft() + .. method:: popleft() - Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque. If no - elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`. + Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque. If no + elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`. - .. method:: remove(value) + .. method:: remove(value) - Removed the first occurrence of *value*. If not found, raises a - :exc:`ValueError`. + Removed the first occurrence of *value*. If not found, raises a + :exc:`ValueError`. - .. method:: reverse() + .. method:: reverse() - Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return ``None``. + Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return ``None``. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. method:: rotate(n) + .. method:: rotate(n) - Rotate the deque *n* steps to the right. If *n* is negative, rotate to - the left. Rotating one step to the right is equivalent to: - ``d.appendleft(d.pop())``. + Rotate the deque *n* steps to the right. If *n* is negative, rotate to + the left. Rotating one step to the right is equivalent to: + ``d.appendleft(d.pop())``. - Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute: + Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute: - .. attribute:: maxlen + .. attribute:: maxlen - Maximum size of a deque or *None* if unbounded. + Maximum size of a deque or *None* if unbounded. - .. versionadded:: 3.1 + .. versionadded:: 3.1 In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, ``len(d)``, @@ -336,56 +506,56 @@ Example: .. doctest:: - >>> from collections import deque - >>> d = deque('ghi') # make a new deque with three items - >>> for elem in d: # iterate over the deque's elements - ... print(elem.upper()) - G - H - I - - >>> d.append('j') # add a new entry to the right side - >>> d.appendleft('f') # add a new entry to the left side - >>> d # show the representation of the deque - deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j']) - - >>> d.pop() # return and remove the rightmost item - 'j' - >>> d.popleft() # return and remove the leftmost item - 'f' - >>> list(d) # list the contents of the deque - ['g', 'h', 'i'] - >>> d[0] # peek at leftmost item - 'g' - >>> d[-1] # peek at rightmost item - 'i' - - >>> list(reversed(d)) # list the contents of a deque in reverse - ['i', 'h', 'g'] - >>> 'h' in d # search the deque - True - >>> d.extend('jkl') # add multiple elements at once - >>> d - deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l']) - >>> d.rotate(1) # right rotation - >>> d - deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k']) - >>> d.rotate(-1) # left rotation - >>> d - deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l']) - - >>> deque(reversed(d)) # make a new deque in reverse order - deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g']) - >>> d.clear() # empty the deque - >>> d.pop() # cannot pop from an empty deque - Traceback (most recent call last): - File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel- - d.pop() - IndexError: pop from an empty deque - - >>> d.extendleft('abc') # extendleft() reverses the input order - >>> d - deque(['c', 'b', 'a']) + >>> from collections import deque + >>> d = deque('ghi') # make a new deque with three items + >>> for elem in d: # iterate over the deque's elements + ... print(elem.upper()) + G + H + I + + >>> d.append('j') # add a new entry to the right side + >>> d.appendleft('f') # add a new entry to the left side + >>> d # show the representation of the deque + deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j']) + + >>> d.pop() # return and remove the rightmost item + 'j' + >>> d.popleft() # return and remove the leftmost item + 'f' + >>> list(d) # list the contents of the deque + ['g', 'h', 'i'] + >>> d[0] # peek at leftmost item + 'g' + >>> d[-1] # peek at rightmost item + 'i' + + >>> list(reversed(d)) # list the contents of a deque in reverse + ['i', 'h', 'g'] + >>> 'h' in d # search the deque + True + >>> d.extend('jkl') # add multiple elements at once + >>> d + deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l']) + >>> d.rotate(1) # right rotation + >>> d + deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k']) + >>> d.rotate(-1) # left rotation + >>> d + deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l']) + + >>> deque(reversed(d)) # make a new deque in reverse order + deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g']) + >>> d.clear() # empty the deque + >>> d.pop() # cannot pop from an empty deque + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel- + d.pop() + IndexError: pop from an empty deque + + >>> d.extendleft('abc') # extendleft() reverses the input order + >>> d + deque(['c', 'b', 'a']) :class:`deque` Recipes @@ -396,9 +566,10 @@ This section shows various approaches to working with deques. Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the ``tail`` filter in Unix:: - def tail(filename, n=10): - 'Return the last n lines of a file' - return deque(open(filename), n) + def tail(filename, n=10): + 'Return the last n lines of a file' + with open(filename) as f: + return deque(f, n) Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left:: @@ -419,10 +590,10 @@ The :meth:`rotate` method provides a way to implement :class:`deque` slicing and deletion. For example, a pure Python implementation of ``del d[n]`` relies on the :meth:`rotate` method to position elements to be popped:: - def delete_nth(d, n): - d.rotate(-n) - d.popleft() - d.rotate(n) + def delete_nth(d, n): + d.rotate(-n) + d.popleft() + d.rotate(n) To implement :class:`deque` slicing, use a similar approach applying :meth:`rotate` to bring a target element to the left side of the deque. Remove @@ -438,50 +609,50 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``, .. class:: defaultdict([default_factory[, ...]]) - Returns a new dictionary-like object. :class:`defaultdict` is a subclass of the - built-in :class:`dict` class. It overrides one method and adds one writable - instance variable. The remaining functionality is the same as for the - :class:`dict` class and is not documented here. + Returns a new dictionary-like object. :class:`defaultdict` is a subclass of the + built-in :class:`dict` class. It overrides one method and adds one writable + instance variable. The remaining functionality is the same as for the + :class:`dict` class and is not documented here. - The first argument provides the initial value for the :attr:`default_factory` - attribute; it defaults to ``None``. All remaining arguments are treated the same - as if they were passed to the :class:`dict` constructor, including keyword - arguments. + The first argument provides the initial value for the :attr:`default_factory` + attribute; it defaults to ``None``. All remaining arguments are treated the same + as if they were passed to the :class:`dict` constructor, including keyword + arguments. - :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following method in addition to the - standard :class:`dict` operations: + :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following method in addition to the + standard :class:`dict` operations: - .. method:: __missing__(key) + .. method:: __missing__(key) - If the :attr:`default_factory` attribute is ``None``, this raises a - :exc:`KeyError` exception with the *key* as argument. + If the :attr:`default_factory` attribute is ``None``, this raises a + :exc:`KeyError` exception with the *key* as argument. - If :attr:`default_factory` is not ``None``, it is called without arguments - to provide a default value for the given *key*, this value is inserted in - the dictionary for the *key*, and returned. + If :attr:`default_factory` is not ``None``, it is called without arguments + to provide a default value for the given *key*, this value is inserted in + the dictionary for the *key*, and returned. - If calling :attr:`default_factory` raises an exception this exception is - propagated unchanged. + If calling :attr:`default_factory` raises an exception this exception is + propagated unchanged. - This method is called by the :meth:`__getitem__` method of the - :class:`dict` class when the requested key is not found; whatever it - returns or raises is then returned or raised by :meth:`__getitem__`. + This method is called by the :meth:`__getitem__` method of the + :class:`dict` class when the requested key is not found; whatever it + returns or raises is then returned or raised by :meth:`__getitem__`. - Note that :meth:`__missing__` is *not* called for any operations besides - :meth:`__getitem__`. This means that :meth:`get` will, like normal - dictionaries, return ``None`` as a default rather than using - :attr:`default_factory`. + Note that :meth:`__missing__` is *not* called for any operations besides + :meth:`__getitem__`. This means that :meth:`get` will, like normal + dictionaries, return ``None`` as a default rather than using + :attr:`default_factory`. - :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following instance variable: + :class:`defaultdict` objects support the following instance variable: - .. attribute:: default_factory + .. attribute:: default_factory - This attribute is used by the :meth:`__missing__` method; it is - initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to - ``None``, if absent. + This attribute is used by the :meth:`__missing__` method; it is + initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to + ``None``, if absent. :class:`defaultdict` Examples @@ -490,13 +661,13 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``, Using :class:`list` as the :attr:`default_factory`, it is easy to group a sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists: - >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)] - >>> d = defaultdict(list) - >>> for k, v in s: - ... d[k].append(v) - ... - >>> list(d.items()) - [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])] + >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)] + >>> d = defaultdict(list) + >>> for k, v in s: + ... d[k].append(v) + ... + >>> list(d.items()) + [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])] When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in the mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the :attr:`default_factory` @@ -506,24 +677,24 @@ again, the look-up proceeds normally (returning the list for that key) and the :meth:`list.append` operation adds another value to the list. This technique is simpler and faster than an equivalent technique using :meth:`dict.setdefault`: - >>> d = {} - >>> for k, v in s: - ... d.setdefault(k, []).append(v) - ... - >>> list(d.items()) - [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])] + >>> d = {} + >>> for k, v in s: + ... d.setdefault(k, []).append(v) + ... + >>> list(d.items()) + [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])] Setting the :attr:`default_factory` to :class:`int` makes the :class:`defaultdict` useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in other languages): - >>> s = 'mississippi' - >>> d = defaultdict(int) - >>> for k in s: - ... d[k] += 1 - ... - >>> list(d.items()) - [('i', 4), ('p', 2), ('s', 4), ('m', 1)] + >>> s = 'mississippi' + >>> d = defaultdict(int) + >>> for k in s: + ... d[k] += 1 + ... + >>> list(d.items()) + [('i', 4), ('p', 2), ('s', 4), ('m', 1)] When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so the :attr:`default_factory` function calls :func:`int` to supply a default count of @@ -534,23 +705,23 @@ constant functions. A faster and more flexible way to create constant functions is to use a lambda function which can supply any constant value (not just zero): - >>> def constant_factory(value): - ... return lambda: value - >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>')) - >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran') - >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d - 'John ran to <missing>' + >>> def constant_factory(value): + ... return lambda: value + >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>')) + >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran') + >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d + 'John ran to <missing>' Setting the :attr:`default_factory` to :class:`set` makes the :class:`defaultdict` useful for building a dictionary of sets: - >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)] - >>> d = defaultdict(set) - >>> for k, v in s: - ... d[k].add(v) - ... - >>> list(d.items()) - [('blue', set([2, 4])), ('red', set([1, 3]))] + >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)] + >>> d = defaultdict(set) + >>> for k, v in s: + ... d[k].add(v) + ... + >>> list(d.items()) + [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})] :func:`namedtuple` Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields @@ -562,168 +733,131 @@ they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index. .. function:: namedtuple(typename, field_names, verbose=False, rename=False) - Returns a new tuple subclass named *typename*. The new subclass is used to - create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as - well as being indexable and iterable. Instances of the subclass also have a - helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful :meth:`__repr__` - method which lists the tuple contents in a ``name=value`` format. + Returns a new tuple subclass named *typename*. The new subclass is used to + create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as + well as being indexable and iterable. Instances of the subclass also have a + helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful :meth:`__repr__` + method which lists the tuple contents in a ``name=value`` format. - The *field_names* are a single string with each fieldname separated by whitespace - and/or commas, for example ``'x y'`` or ``'x, y'``. Alternatively, *field_names* - can be a sequence of strings such as ``['x', 'y']``. + The *field_names* are a single string with each fieldname separated by whitespace + and/or commas, for example ``'x y'`` or ``'x, y'``. Alternatively, *field_names* + can be a sequence of strings such as ``['x', 'y']``. - Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for names - starting with an underscore. Valid identifiers consist of letters, digits, - and underscores but do not start with a digit or underscore and cannot be - a :mod:`keyword` such as *class*, *for*, *return*, *global*, *pass*, - or *raise*. + Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for names + starting with an underscore. Valid identifiers consist of letters, digits, + and underscores but do not start with a digit or underscore and cannot be + a :mod:`keyword` such as *class*, *for*, *return*, *global*, *pass*, + or *raise*. - If *rename* is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced - with positional names. For example, ``['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']`` is - converted to ``['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3']``, eliminating the keyword - ``def`` and the duplicate fieldname ``abc``. + If *rename* is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced + with positional names. For example, ``['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']`` is + converted to ``['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3']``, eliminating the keyword + ``def`` and the duplicate fieldname ``abc``. - If *verbose* is true, the class definition is printed just before being built. + If *verbose* is true, the class definition is printed after it is + built. This option is outdated; instead, it is simpler to print the + :attr:`_source` attribute. - Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are - lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples. + Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are + lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples. - .. versionchanged:: 3.1 - Added support for *rename*. + .. versionchanged:: 3.1 + Added support for *rename*. .. doctest:: - :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE - - >>> # Basic example - >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y']) - >>> p = Point(x=10, y=11) - - >>> # Example using the verbose option to print the class definition - >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y', verbose=True) - class Point(tuple): - 'Point(x, y)' - <BLANKLINE> - __slots__ = () - <BLANKLINE> - _fields = ('x', 'y') - <BLANKLINE> - def __new__(_cls, x, y): - 'Create a new instance of Point(x, y)' - return _tuple.__new__(_cls, (x, y)) - <BLANKLINE> - @classmethod - def _make(cls, iterable, new=tuple.__new__, len=len): - 'Make a new Point object from a sequence or iterable' - result = new(cls, iterable) - if len(result) != 2: - raise TypeError('Expected 2 arguments, got %d' % len(result)) - return result - <BLANKLINE> - def __repr__(self): - 'Return a nicely formatted representation string' - return self.__class__.__name__ + '(x=%r, y=%r)' % self - <BLANKLINE> - def _asdict(self): - 'Return a new OrderedDict which maps field names to their values' - return OrderedDict(zip(self._fields, self)) - <BLANKLINE> - __dict__ = property(_asdict) - <BLANKLINE> - def _replace(_self, **kwds): - 'Return a new Point object replacing specified fields with new values' - result = _self._make(map(kwds.pop, ('x', 'y'), _self)) - if kwds: - raise ValueError('Got unexpected field names: %r' % list(kwds.keys())) - return result - <BLANKLINE> - def __getnewargs__(self): - 'Return self as a plain tuple. Used by copy and pickle.' - return tuple(self) - <BLANKLINE> - x = _property(_itemgetter(0), doc='Alias for field number 0') - y = _property(_itemgetter(1), doc='Alias for field number 1') - - >>> p = Point(11, y=22) # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments - >>> p[0] + p[1] # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22) - 33 - >>> x, y = p # unpack like a regular tuple - >>> x, y - (11, 22) - >>> p.x + p.y # fields also accessible by name - 33 - >>> p # readable __repr__ with a name=value style - Point(x=11, y=22) + :options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE + + >>> # Basic example + >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y']) + >>> p = Point(11, y=22) # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments + >>> p[0] + p[1] # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22) + 33 + >>> x, y = p # unpack like a regular tuple + >>> x, y + (11, 22) + >>> p.x + p.y # fields also accessible by name + 33 + >>> p # readable __repr__ with a name=value style + Point(x=11, y=22) Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result tuples returned by the :mod:`csv` or :mod:`sqlite3` modules:: - EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade') + EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade') - import csv - for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))): - print(emp.name, emp.title) + import csv + for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))): + print(emp.name, emp.title) - import sqlite3 - conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata') - cursor = conn.cursor() - cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees') - for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()): - print(emp.name, emp.title) + import sqlite3 + conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata') + cursor = conn.cursor() + cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees') + for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()): + print(emp.name, emp.title) In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support -three additional methods and one attribute. To prevent conflicts with +three additional methods and two attributes. To prevent conflicts with field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore. .. classmethod:: somenamedtuple._make(iterable) - Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable. + Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable. -.. doctest:: + .. doctest:: - >>> t = [11, 22] - >>> Point._make(t) - Point(x=11, y=22) + >>> t = [11, 22] + >>> Point._make(t) + Point(x=11, y=22) .. method:: somenamedtuple._asdict() - Return a new :class:`OrderedDict` which maps field names to their corresponding - values:: + Return a new :class:`OrderedDict` which maps field names to their corresponding + values. Note, this method is no longer needed now that the same effect can + be achieved by using the built-in :func:`vars` function:: - >>> p._asdict() - OrderedDict([('x', 11), ('y', 22)]) + >>> vars(p) + OrderedDict([('x', 11), ('y', 22)]) - .. versionchanged:: 3.1 - Returns an :class:`OrderedDict` instead of a regular :class:`dict`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.1 + Returns an :class:`OrderedDict` instead of a regular :class:`dict`. .. method:: somenamedtuple._replace(kwargs) - Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields with new - values: + Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields with new + values:: + + >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22) + >>> p._replace(x=33) + Point(x=33, y=22) + + >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items(): + ... inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now()) -:: +.. attribute:: somenamedtuple._source - >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22) - >>> p._replace(x=33) - Point(x=33, y=22) + A string with the pure Python source code used to create the named + tuple class. The source makes the named tuple self-documenting. + It can be printed, executed using :func:`exec`, or saved to a file + and imported. - >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items(): - ... inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now()) + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. attribute:: somenamedtuple._fields - Tuple of strings listing the field names. Useful for introspection - and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples. + Tuple of strings listing the field names. Useful for introspection + and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples. -.. doctest:: + .. doctest:: - >>> p._fields # view the field names - ('x', 'y') + >>> p._fields # view the field names + ('x', 'y') - >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue') - >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields) - >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0) - Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0) + >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue') + >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields) + >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0) + Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0) To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the :func:`getattr` function: @@ -734,31 +868,30 @@ function: To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the double-star-operator (as described in :ref:`tut-unpacking-arguments`): - >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22} - >>> Point(**d) - Point(x=11, y=22) + >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22} + >>> Point(**d) + Point(x=11, y=22) Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or change functionality with a subclass. Here is how to add a calculated field and a fixed-width print format: >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', 'x y')): - __slots__ = () - @property - def hypot(self): - return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5 - def __str__(self): - return 'Point: x=%6.3f y=%6.3f hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot) + __slots__ = () + @property + def hypot(self): + return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5 + def __str__(self): + return 'Point: x=%6.3f y=%6.3f hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot) >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7): - print(p) + print(p) Point: x= 3.000 y= 4.000 hypot= 5.000 Point: x=14.000 y= 0.714 hypot=14.018 The subclass shown above sets ``__slots__`` to an empty tuple. This helps keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance dictionaries. - Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields. Instead, simply create a new named tuple type from the :attr:`_fields` attribute: @@ -770,6 +903,7 @@ customize a prototype instance: >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', 'owner balance transaction_count') >>> default_account = Account('<owner name>', 0.0, 0) >>> johns_account = default_account._replace(owner='John') + >>> janes_account = default_account._replace(owner='Jane') Enumerated constants can be implemented with named tuples, but it is simpler and more efficient to use a simple class declaration: @@ -778,19 +912,19 @@ and more efficient to use a simple class declaration: >>> Status.open, Status.pending, Status.closed (0, 1, 2) >>> class Status: - open, pending, closed = range(3) + open, pending, closed = range(3) .. seealso:: - * `Named tuple recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/500261/>`_ - adapted for Python 2.4. + * `Named tuple recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/500261/>`_ + adapted for Python 2.4. - * `Recipe for named tuple abstract base class with a metaclass mix-in - <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/577629-namedtupleabc-abstract-base-class-mix-in-for-named/>`_ - by Jan Kaliszewski. Besides providing an :term:`abstract base class` for - named tuples, it also supports an alternate :term:`metaclass`-based - constructor that is convenient for use cases where named tuples are being - subclassed. + * `Recipe for named tuple abstract base class with a metaclass mix-in + <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/577629-namedtupleabc-abstract-base-class-mix-in-for-named/>`_ + by Jan Kaliszewski. Besides providing an :term:`abstract base class` for + named tuples, it also supports an alternate :term:`metaclass`-based + constructor that is convenient for use cases where named tuples are being + subclassed. :class:`OrderedDict` objects @@ -802,36 +936,36 @@ the items are returned in the order their keys were first added. .. class:: OrderedDict([items]) - Return an instance of a dict subclass, supporting the usual :class:`dict` - methods. An *OrderedDict* is a dict that remembers the order that keys - were first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the - original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and - reinserting it will move it to the end. + Return an instance of a dict subclass, supporting the usual :class:`dict` + methods. An *OrderedDict* is a dict that remembers the order that keys + were first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the + original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and + reinserting it will move it to the end. - .. versionadded:: 3.1 + .. versionadded:: 3.1 - .. method:: popitem(last=True) + .. method:: popitem(last=True) - The :meth:`popitem` method for ordered dictionaries returns and removes a - (key, value) pair. The pairs are returned in LIFO order if *last* is true - or FIFO order if false. + The :meth:`popitem` method for ordered dictionaries returns and removes a + (key, value) pair. The pairs are returned in LIFO order if *last* is true + or FIFO order if false. - .. method:: move_to_end(key, last=True) + .. method:: move_to_end(key, last=True) - Move an existing *key* to either end of an ordered dictionary. The item - is moved to the right end if *last* is true (the default) or to the - beginning if *last* is false. Raises :exc:`KeyError` if the *key* does - not exist:: + Move an existing *key* to either end of an ordered dictionary. The item + is moved to the right end if *last* is true (the default) or to the + beginning if *last* is false. Raises :exc:`KeyError` if the *key* does + not exist:: - >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde') - >>> d.move_to_end('b') - >>> ''.join(d.keys()) - 'acdeb' - >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False) - >>> ''.join(d.keys()) - 'bacde' + >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde') + >>> d.move_to_end('b') + >>> ''.join(d.keys()) + 'acdeb' + >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False) + >>> ''.join(d.keys()) + 'bacde' - .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionadded:: 3.2 In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also support reverse iteration using :func:`reversed`. @@ -849,8 +983,8 @@ semantics pass-in keyword arguments using a regular unordered dictionary. .. seealso:: - `Equivalent OrderedDict recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576693/>`_ - that runs on Python 2.4 or later. + `Equivalent OrderedDict recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576693/>`_ + that runs on Python 2.4 or later. :class:`OrderedDict` Examples and Recipes ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -893,7 +1027,7 @@ original insertion position is changed and moved to the end:: An ordered dictionary can be combined with the :class:`Counter` class so that the counter remembers the order elements are first encountered:: - class OrderedCounter(Counter, OrderedDict): + class OrderedCounter(Counter, OrderedDict): 'Counter that remembers the order elements are first encountered' def __repr__(self): @@ -914,19 +1048,19 @@ attribute. .. class:: UserDict([initialdata]) - Class that simulates a dictionary. The instance's contents are kept in a - regular dictionary, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of - :class:`UserDict` instances. If *initialdata* is provided, :attr:`data` is - initialized with its contents; note that a reference to *initialdata* will not - be kept, allowing it be used for other purposes. + Class that simulates a dictionary. The instance's contents are kept in a + regular dictionary, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of + :class:`UserDict` instances. If *initialdata* is provided, :attr:`data` is + initialized with its contents; note that a reference to *initialdata* will not + be kept, allowing it be used for other purposes. - In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings, - :class:`UserDict` instances provide the following attribute: + In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings, + :class:`UserDict` instances provide the following attribute: - .. attribute:: data + .. attribute:: data - A real dictionary used to store the contents of the :class:`UserDict` - class. + A real dictionary used to store the contents of the :class:`UserDict` + class. @@ -944,19 +1078,19 @@ to work with because the underlying list is accessible as an attribute. .. class:: UserList([list]) - Class that simulates a list. The instance's contents are kept in a regular - list, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserList` - instances. The instance's contents are initially set to a copy of *list*, - defaulting to the empty list ``[]``. *list* can be any iterable, for - example a real Python list or a :class:`UserList` object. + Class that simulates a list. The instance's contents are kept in a regular + list, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserList` + instances. The instance's contents are initially set to a copy of *list*, + defaulting to the empty list ``[]``. *list* can be any iterable, for + example a real Python list or a :class:`UserList` object. - In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable sequences, - :class:`UserList` instances provide the following attribute: + In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable sequences, + :class:`UserList` instances provide the following attribute: - .. attribute:: data + .. attribute:: data - A real :class:`list` object used to store the contents of the - :class:`UserList` class. + A real :class:`list` object used to store the contents of the + :class:`UserList` class. **Subclassing requirements:** Subclasses of :class:`UserList` are expect to offer a constructor which can be called with either no arguments or one @@ -981,168 +1115,10 @@ attribute. .. class:: UserString([sequence]) - Class that simulates a string or a Unicode string object. The instance's - content is kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the - :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserString` instances. The instance's - contents are initially set to a copy of *sequence*. The *sequence* can - be an instance of :class:`bytes`, :class:`str`, :class:`UserString` (or a - subclass) or an arbitrary sequence which can be converted into a string using - the built-in :func:`str` function. - - -.. _collections-abstract-base-classes: - -ABCs - abstract base classes ----------------------------- - -The collections module offers the following :term:`ABCs <abstract base class>`: - -========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== -ABC Inherits from Abstract Methods Mixin Methods -========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== -:class:`Container` ``__contains__`` -:class:`Hashable` ``__hash__`` -:class:`Iterable` ``__iter__`` -:class:`Iterator` :class:`Iterable` ``__next__`` ``__iter__`` -:class:`Sized` ``__len__`` -:class:`Callable` ``__call__`` - -:class:`Sequence` :class:`Sized`, ``__getitem__`` ``__contains__``, ``__iter__``, ``__reversed__``, - :class:`Iterable`, ``index``, and ``count`` - :class:`Container` - -:class:`MutableSequence` :class:`Sequence` ``__setitem__``, Inherited :class:`Sequence` methods and - ``__delitem__``, ``append``, ``reverse``, ``extend``, ``pop``, - ``insert`` ``remove``, and ``__iadd__`` - -:class:`Set` :class:`Sized`, ``__le__``, ``__lt__``, ``__eq__``, ``__ne__``, - :class:`Iterable`, ``__gt__``, ``__ge__``, ``__and__``, ``__or__``, - :class:`Container` ``__sub__``, ``__xor__``, and ``isdisjoint`` - -:class:`MutableSet` :class:`Set` ``add``, Inherited :class:`Set` methods and - ``discard`` ``clear``, ``pop``, ``remove``, ``__ior__``, - ``__iand__``, ``__ixor__``, and ``__isub__`` - -:class:`Mapping` :class:`Sized`, ``__getitem__`` ``__contains__``, ``keys``, ``items``, ``values``, - :class:`Iterable`, ``get``, ``__eq__``, and ``__ne__`` - :class:`Container` - -:class:`MutableMapping` :class:`Mapping` ``__setitem__``, Inherited :class:`Mapping` methods and - ``__delitem__`` ``pop``, ``popitem``, ``clear``, ``update``, - and ``setdefault`` - - -:class:`MappingView` :class:`Sized` ``__len__`` -:class:`ItemsView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``, - :class:`Set` ``__iter__`` -:class:`KeysView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``, - :class:`Set` ``__iter__`` -:class:`ValuesView` :class:`MappingView` ``__contains__``, ``__iter__`` -========================= ===================== ====================== ==================================================== - - -.. class:: Container - Hashable - Sized - Callable - - ABCs for classes that provide respectively the methods :meth:`__contains__`, - :meth:`__hash__`, :meth:`__len__`, and :meth:`__call__`. - -.. class:: Iterable - - ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`__iter__` method. - See also the definition of :term:`iterable`. - -.. class:: Iterator - - ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`__iter__` and :meth:`next` methods. - See also the definition of :term:`iterator`. - -.. class:: Sequence - MutableSequence - - ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`sequences <sequence>`. - -.. class:: Set - MutableSet - - ABCs for read-only and mutable sets. - -.. class:: Mapping - MutableMapping - - ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`. - -.. class:: MappingView - ItemsView - KeysView - ValuesView - - ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values :term:`views <view>`. - - -These ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide -particular functionality, for example:: - - size = None - if isinstance(myvar, collections.Sized): - size = len(myvar) - -Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop -classes supporting container APIs. For example, to write a class supporting -the full :class:`Set` API, it only necessary to supply the three underlying -abstract methods: :meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`__iter__`, and :meth:`__len__`. -The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as :meth:`__and__` and -:meth:`isdisjoint` :: - - class ListBasedSet(collections.Set): - ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed - and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. ''' - def __init__(self, iterable): - self.elements = lst = [] - for value in iterable: - if value not in lst: - lst.append(value) - def __iter__(self): - return iter(self.elements) - def __contains__(self, value): - return value in self.elements - def __len__(self): - return len(self.elements) - - s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef') - s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi') - overlap = s1 & s2 # The __and__() method is supported automatically - -Notes on using :class:`Set` and :class:`MutableSet` as a mixin: - -(1) - Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need - a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is - assumed to have a signature in the form ``ClassName(iterable)``. - That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called - :meth:`_from_iterable` which calls ``cls(iterable)`` to produce a new set. - If the :class:`Set` mixin is being used in a class with a different - constructor signature, you will need to override :meth:`_from_iterable` - with a classmethod that can construct new instances from - an iterable argument. - -(2) - To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the - semantics are fixed), redefine :meth:`__le__` and - then the other operations will automatically follow suit. - -(3) - The :class:`Set` mixin provides a :meth:`_hash` method to compute a hash value - for the set; however, :meth:`__hash__` is not defined because not all sets - are hashable or immutable. To add set hashabilty using mixins, - inherit from both :meth:`Set` and :meth:`Hashable`, then define - ``__hash__ = Set._hash``. - -.. seealso:: - - * `OrderedSet recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/>`_ for an - example built on :class:`MutableSet`. - - * For more about ABCs, see the :mod:`abc` module and :pep:`3119`. + Class that simulates a string or a Unicode string object. The instance's + content is kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the + :attr:`data` attribute of :class:`UserString` instances. The instance's + contents are initially set to a copy of *sequence*. The *sequence* can + be an instance of :class:`bytes`, :class:`str`, :class:`UserString` (or a + subclass) or an arbitrary sequence which can be converted into a string using + the built-in :func:`str` function. diff --git a/Doc/library/concurrency.rst b/Doc/library/concurrency.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..56fe3f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/concurrency.rst @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +.. _concurrency: + +******************** +Concurrent Execution +******************** + +The modules described in this chapter provide support for concurrent +execution of code. The appropriate choice of tool will depend on the +task to be executed (CPU bound vs IO bound) and preferred style of +development (event driven cooperative multitasking vs preemptive +multitasking) Here's an overview: + + +.. toctree:: + + threading.rst + multiprocessing.rst + concurrent.futures.rst + subprocess.rst + sched.rst + queue.rst + select.rst + + +The following are support modules for some of the above services: + +.. toctree:: + + dummy_threading.rst + _thread.rst + _dummy_thread.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst b/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst index 29ffc0d..a88f10c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst +++ b/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst @@ -169,6 +169,12 @@ to a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will result in deadlock. of at most *max_workers* processes. If *max_workers* is ``None`` or not given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + When one of the worker processes terminates abruptly, a + :exc:`BrokenProcessPool` error is now raised. Previously, behaviour + was undefined but operations on the executor or its futures would often + freeze or deadlock. + .. _processpoolexecutor-example: @@ -369,3 +375,16 @@ Module Functions :pep:`3148` -- futures - execute computations asynchronously The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard library. + + +Exception classes +----------------- + +.. exception:: BrokenProcessPool + + Derived from :exc:`RuntimeError`, this exception class is raised when + one of the workers of a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` has terminated + in a non-clean fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + diff --git a/Doc/library/contextlib.rst b/Doc/library/contextlib.rst index e8dc17f..ed9ebb8 100644 --- a/Doc/library/contextlib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/contextlib.rst @@ -12,8 +12,11 @@ This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the :keyword:`with` statement. For more information see also :ref:`typecontextmanager` and :ref:`context-managers`. -Functions provided: +Utilities +--------- + +Functions and classes provided: .. decorator:: contextmanager @@ -168,6 +171,348 @@ Functions provided: .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. class:: ExitStack() + + A context manager that is designed to make it easy to programmatically + combine other context managers and cleanup functions, especially those + that are optional or otherwise driven by input data. + + For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with + statement as follows:: + + with ExitStack() as stack: + files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames] + # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of + # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later + # in the list throw an exception + + Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are called in + reverse order when the instance is closed (either explicitly or implicitly + at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement). Note that callbacks are *not* + invoked implicitly when the context stack instance is garbage collected. + + This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire their + resources in their ``__init__`` method (such as file objects) can be + handled correctly. + + Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of + registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested :keyword:`with` + statements had been used with the registered set of callbacks. This even + extends to exception handling - if an inner callback suppresses or replaces + an exception, then outer callbacks will be passed arguments based on that + updated state. + + This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details of + correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks. It provides a suitable + foundation for higher level context managers that manipulate the exit + stack in application specific ways. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: enter_context(cm) + + Enters a new context manager and adds its :meth:`__exit__` method to + the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context + manager's own :meth:`__enter__` method. + + These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they normally + would if used directly as part of a :keyword:`with` statement. + + .. method:: push(exit) + + Adds a context manager's :meth:`__exit__` method to the callback stack. + + As ``__enter__`` is *not* invoked, this method can be used to cover + part of an :meth:`__enter__` implementation with a context manager's own + :meth:`__exit__` method. + + If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes + it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager's + :meth:`__exit__` method and adds it directly to the callback stack. + + By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the + same way context manager :meth:`__exit__` methods can. + + The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing this + method to be used as a function decorator. + + .. method:: callback(callback, *args, **kwds) + + Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds it to + the callback stack. + + Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot suppress + exceptions (as they are never passed the exception details). + + The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing this + method to be used as a function decorator. + + .. method:: pop_all() + + Transfers the callback stack to a fresh :class:`ExitStack` instance + and returns it. No callbacks are invoked by this operation - instead, + they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed (either + explicitly or implicitly at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement). + + For example, a group of files can be opened as an "all or nothing" + operation as follows:: + + with ExitStack() as stack: + files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames] + close_files = stack.pop_all().close + # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be + # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully, + # they will remain open even after the with statement ends. + # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all + + .. method:: close() + + Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in the + reverse order of registration. For any context managers and exit + callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will indicate that no + exception occurred. + + +Examples and Recipes +-------------------- + +This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of +the tools provided by :mod:`contextlib`. + + +Supporting a variable number of context managers +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The primary use case for :class:`ExitStack` is the one given in the class +documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers and other +cleanup operations in a single :keyword:`with` statement. The variability +may come from the number of context managers needed being driven by user +input (such as opening a user specified collection of files), or from +some of the context managers being optional:: + + with ExitStack() as stack: + for resource in resources: + stack.enter_context(resource) + if need_special resource: + special = acquire_special_resource() + stack.callback(release_special_resource, special) + # Perform operations that use the acquired resources + +As shown, :class:`ExitStack` also makes it quite easy to use :keyword:`with` +statements to manage arbitrary resources that don't natively support the +context management protocol. + + +Simplifying support for single optional context managers +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +In the specific case of a single optional context manager, :class:`ExitStack` +instances can be used as a "do nothing" context manager, allowing a context +manager to easily be omitted without affecting the overall structure of +the source code:: + + def debug_trace(details): + if __debug__: + return TraceContext(details) + # Don't do anything special with the context in release mode + return ExitStack() + + with debug_trace(): + # Suite is traced in debug mode, but runs normally otherwise + + +Catching exceptions from ``__enter__`` methods +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ``__enter__`` +method implementation, *without* inadvertently catching exceptions from +the :keyword:`with` statement body or the context manager's ``__exit__`` +method. By using :class:`ExitStack` the steps in the context management +protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:: + + stack = ExitStack() + try: + x = stack.enter_context(cm) + except Exception: + # handle __enter__ exception + else: + with stack: + # Handle normal case + +Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying API +should be providing a direct resource management interface for use with +:keyword:`try`/:keyword:`except`/:keyword:`finally` statements, but not +all APIs are well designed in that regard. When a context manager is the +only resource management API provided, then :class:`ExitStack` can make it +easier to handle various situations that can't be handled directly in a +:keyword:`with` statement. + + +Cleaning up in an ``__enter__`` implementation +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +As noted in the documentation of :meth:`ExitStack.push`, this +method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later +steps in the :meth:`__enter__` implementation fail. + +Here's an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts resource +acquisition and release functions, along with an optional validation function, +and maps them to the context management protocol:: + + from contextlib import contextmanager, ExitStack + + class ResourceManager(object): + + def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None): + self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource + self.release_resource = release_resource + if check_resource_ok is None: + def check_resource_ok(resource): + return True + self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok + + @contextmanager + def _cleanup_on_error(self): + with ExitStack() as stack: + stack.push(self) + yield + # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception + # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it + # back to our caller + stack.pop_all() + + def __enter__(self): + resource = self.acquire_resource() + with self._cleanup_on_error(): + if not self.check_resource_ok(resource): + msg = "Failed validation for {!r}" + raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource)) + return resource + + def __exit__(self, *exc_details): + # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic + self.release_resource() + + +Replacing any use of ``try-finally`` and flag variables +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +A pattern you will sometimes see is a ``try-finally`` statement with a flag +variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ``finally`` clause should +be executed. In its simplest form (that can't already be handled just by +using an ``except`` clause instead), it looks something like this:: + + cleanup_needed = True + try: + result = perform_operation() + if result: + cleanup_needed = False + finally: + if cleanup_needed: + cleanup_resources() + +As with any ``try`` statement based code, this can cause problems for +development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can end +up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code. + +:class:`ExitStack` makes it possible to instead register a callback for +execution at the end of a ``with`` statement, and then later decide to skip +executing that callback:: + + from contextlib import ExitStack + + with ExitStack() as stack: + stack.callback(cleanup_resources) + result = perform_operation() + if result: + stack.pop_all() + +This allows the intended cleanup up behaviour to be made explicit up front, +rather than requiring a separate flag variable. + +If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified +even further by means of a small helper class:: + + from contextlib import ExitStack + + class Callback(ExitStack): + def __init__(self, callback, *args, **kwds): + super(Callback, self).__init__() + self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds) + + def cancel(self): + self.pop_all() + + with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb: + result = perform_operation() + if result: + cb.cancel() + +If the resource cleanup isn't already neatly bundled into a standalone +function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of +:meth:`ExitStack.callback` to declare the resource cleanup in +advance:: + + from contextlib import ExitStack + + with ExitStack() as stack: + @stack.callback + def cleanup_resources(): + ... + result = perform_operation() + if result: + stack.pop_all() + +Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function +declared this way cannot take any parameters. Instead, any resources to +be released must be accessed as closure variables + + +Using a context manager as a function decorator +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +:class:`ContextDecorator` makes it possible to use a context manager in +both an ordinary ``with`` statement and also as a function decorator. + +For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements +with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than +writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, +inheriting from :class:`ContextDecorator` provides both capabilities in a +single definition:: + + from contextlib import ContextDecorator + import logging + + logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO) + + class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator): + def __init__(self, name): + self.name = name + + def __enter__(self): + logging.info('Entering: {}'.format(name)) + + def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb): + logging.info('Exiting: {}'.format(name)) + +Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:: + + with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'): + print('Some time consuming activity goes here') + load_widget() + +And also as a function decorator:: + + @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader') + def activity(): + print('Some time consuming activity goes here') + load_widget() + +Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers +as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of +:meth:`__enter__`. If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use +an explicit ``with`` statement. + .. seealso:: :pep:`0343` - The "with" statement diff --git a/Doc/library/copyreg.rst b/Doc/library/copyreg.rst index a2d316e..41061e5 100644 --- a/Doc/library/copyreg.rst +++ b/Doc/library/copyreg.rst @@ -32,6 +32,8 @@ Such constructors may be factory functions or class instances. returned by *function* at pickling time. :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if *object* is a class or *constructor* is not callable. - See the :mod:`pickle` module for more details on the interface expected of - *function* and *constructor*. - + See the :mod:`pickle` module for more details on the interface + expected of *function* and *constructor*. Note that the + :attr:`~pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table` attribute of a pickler + object or subclass of :class:`pickle.Pickler` can also be used for + declaring reduction functions. diff --git a/Doc/library/crypt.rst b/Doc/library/crypt.rst index 0be571e..1ba2ed3 100644 --- a/Doc/library/crypt.rst +++ b/Doc/library/crypt.rst @@ -15,9 +15,9 @@ This module implements an interface to the :manpage:`crypt(3)` routine, which is a one-way hash function based upon a modified DES algorithm; see the Unix man -page for further details. Possible uses include allowing Python scripts to -accept typed passwords from the user, or attempting to crack Unix passwords with -a dictionary. +page for further details. Possible uses include storing hashed passwords +so you can check passwords without storing the actual password, or attempting +to crack Unix passwords with a dictionary. .. index:: single: crypt(3) @@ -26,15 +26,74 @@ the :manpage:`crypt(3)` routine in the running system. Therefore, any extensions available on the current implementation will also be available on this module. +Hashing Methods +--------------- -.. function:: crypt(word, salt) +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The :mod:`crypt` module defines the list of hashing methods (not all methods +are available on all platforms): + +.. data:: METHOD_SHA512 + + A Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 86 character + hash. This is the strongest method. + +.. data:: METHOD_SHA256 + + Another Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 43 + character hash. + +.. data:: METHOD_MD5 + + Another Modular Crypt Format method with 8 character salt and 22 + character hash. + +.. data:: METHOD_CRYPT + + The traditional method with a 2 character salt and 13 characters of + hash. This is the weakest method. + + +Module Attributes +----------------- + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. attribute:: methods + + A list of available password hashing algorithms, as + ``crypt.METHOD_*`` objects. This list is sorted from strongest to + weakest, and is guaranteed to have at least ``crypt.METHOD_CRYPT``. + + +Module Functions +---------------- + +The :mod:`crypt` module defines the following functions: + +.. function:: crypt(word, salt=None) *word* will usually be a user's password as typed at a prompt or in a graphical - interface. *salt* is usually a random two-character string which will be used - to perturb the DES algorithm in one of 4096 ways. The characters in *salt* must - be in the set ``[./a-zA-Z0-9]``. Returns the hashed password as a string, which - will be composed of characters from the same alphabet as the salt (the first two - characters represent the salt itself). + interface. The optional *salt* is either a string as returned from + :func:`mksalt`, one of the ``crypt.METHOD_*`` values (though not all + may be available on all platforms), or a full encrypted password + including salt, as returned by this function. If *salt* is not + provided, the strongest method will be used (as returned by + :func:`methods`. + + Checking a password is usually done by passing the plain-text password + as *word* and the full results of a previous :func:`crypt` call, + which should be the same as the results of this call. + + *salt* (either a random 2 or 16 character string, possibly prefixed with + ``$digit$`` to indicate the method) which will be used to perturb the + encryption algorithm. The characters in *salt* must be in the set + ``[./a-zA-Z0-9]``, with the exception of Modular Crypt Format which + prefixes a ``$digit$``. + + Returns the hashed password as a string, which will be composed of + characters from the same alphabet as the salt. .. index:: single: crypt(3) @@ -42,18 +101,48 @@ this module. different sizes in the *salt*, it is recommended to use the full crypted password as salt when checking for a password. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Accept ``crypt.METHOD_*`` values in addition to strings for *salt*. + + +.. function:: mksalt(method=None) + + Return a randomly generated salt of the specified method. If no + *method* is given, the strongest method available as returned by + :func:`methods` is used. + + The return value is a string either of 2 characters in length for + ``crypt.METHOD_CRYPT``, or 19 characters starting with ``$digit$`` and + 16 random characters from the set ``[./a-zA-Z0-9]``, suitable for + passing as the *salt* argument to :func:`crypt`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +Examples +-------- + A simple example illustrating typical use:: - import crypt, getpass, pwd + import pwd + import crypt + import getpass def login(): - username = input('Python login:') + username = input('Python login: ') cryptedpasswd = pwd.getpwnam(username)[1] if cryptedpasswd: if cryptedpasswd == 'x' or cryptedpasswd == '*': - raise "Sorry, currently no support for shadow passwords" + raise ValueError('no support for shadow passwords') cleartext = getpass.getpass() return crypt.crypt(cleartext, cryptedpasswd) == cryptedpasswd else: - return 1 + return True + +To generate a hash of a password using the strongest available method and +check it against the original:: + + import crypt + hashed = crypt.crypt(plaintext) + if hashed != crypt.crypt(plaintext, hashed): + raise ValueError("hashed version doesn't validate against original") diff --git a/Doc/library/csv.rst b/Doc/library/csv.rst index d8df7fc..4f19cee 100644 --- a/Doc/library/csv.rst +++ b/Doc/library/csv.rst @@ -11,15 +11,15 @@ pair: data; tabular The so-called CSV (Comma Separated Values) format is the most common import and -export format for spreadsheets and databases. There is no "CSV standard", so -the format is operationally defined by the many applications which read and -write it. The lack of a standard means that subtle differences often exist in -the data produced and consumed by different applications. These differences can -make it annoying to process CSV files from multiple sources. Still, while the -delimiters and quoting characters vary, the overall format is similar enough -that it is possible to write a single module which can efficiently manipulate -such data, hiding the details of reading and writing the data from the -programmer. +export format for spreadsheets and databases. CSV format was used for many +years prior to attempts to describe the format in a standardized way in +:rfc:`4180`. The lack of a well-defined standard means that subtle differences +often exist in the data produced and consumed by different applications. These +differences can make it annoying to process CSV files from multiple sources. +Still, while the delimiters and quoting characters vary, the overall format is +similar enough that it is possible to write a single module which can +efficiently manipulate such data, hiding the details of reading and writing the +data from the programmer. The :mod:`csv` module implements classes to read and write tabular data in CSV format. It allows programmers to say, "write this data in the format preferred diff --git a/Doc/library/ctypes.rst b/Doc/library/ctypes.rst index 3c602c8..3e4afd1 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ctypes.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ctypes.rst @@ -39,9 +39,14 @@ loads libraries which export functions using the standard ``cdecl`` calling convention, while *windll* libraries call functions using the ``stdcall`` calling convention. *oledll* also uses the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows :c:type:`HRESULT` error code. The error -code is used to automatically raise a :class:`WindowsError` exception when the +code is used to automatically raise a :class:`OSError` exception when the function call fails. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Windows errors used to raise :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an alias + of :exc:`OSError`. + + Here are some examples for Windows. Note that ``msvcrt`` is the MS standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling convention:: @@ -189,7 +194,7 @@ argument values:: >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32) # doctest: +WINDOWS Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in ? - WindowsError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020 + OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020 >>> There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with :mod:`ctypes`, so you @@ -496,7 +501,7 @@ useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception:: Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in ? File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle - WindowsError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found. + OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found. >>> ``WinError`` is a function which will call Windows ``FormatMessage()`` api to @@ -926,21 +931,21 @@ Callback functions :mod:`ctypes` allows to create C callable function pointers from Python callables. These are sometimes called *callback functions*. -First, you must create a class for the callback function, the class knows the +First, you must create a class for the callback function. The class knows the calling convention, the return type, and the number and types of arguments this function will receive. -The CFUNCTYPE factory function creates types for callback functions using the -normal cdecl calling convention, and, on Windows, the WINFUNCTYPE factory -function creates types for callback functions using the stdcall calling -convention. +The :func:`CFUNCTYPE` factory function creates types for callback functions +using the ``cdecl`` calling convention. On Windows, the :func:`WINFUNCTYPE` +factory function creates types for callback functions using the ``stdcall`` +calling convention. Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the remaining arguments. I will present an example here which uses the standard C library's -:c:func:`qsort` function, this is used to sort items with the help of a callback +:c:func:`qsort` function, that is used to sort items with the help of a callback function. :c:func:`qsort` will be used to sort an array of integers:: >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5 @@ -953,7 +958,7 @@ function. :c:func:`qsort` will be used to sort an array of integers:: items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the comparison function, the callback. The callback will then be called with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the first item is smaller than -the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer else. +the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer otherwise. So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return an integer. First we create the ``type`` for the callback function:: @@ -961,36 +966,8 @@ integer. First we create the ``type`` for the callback function:: >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int)) >>> -For the first implementation of the callback function, we simply print the -arguments we get, and return 0 (incremental development ;-):: - - >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b): - ... print("py_cmp_func", a, b) - ... return 0 - ... - >>> - -Create the C callable callback:: - - >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func) - >>> - -And we're ready to go:: - - >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func) # doctest: +WINDOWS - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - py_cmp_func <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x00...> - >>> - -We know how to access the contents of a pointer, so lets redefine our callback:: +To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets +passed:: >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b): ... print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0]) @@ -999,23 +976,7 @@ We know how to access the contents of a pointer, so lets redefine our callback:: >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func) >>> -Here is what we get on Windows:: - - >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func) # doctest: +WINDOWS - py_cmp_func 7 1 - py_cmp_func 33 1 - py_cmp_func 99 1 - py_cmp_func 5 1 - py_cmp_func 7 5 - py_cmp_func 33 5 - py_cmp_func 99 5 - py_cmp_func 7 99 - py_cmp_func 33 99 - py_cmp_func 7 33 - >>> - -It is funny to see that on linux the sort function seems to work much more -efficiently, it is doing less comparisons:: +The result:: >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func) # doctest: +LINUX py_cmp_func 5 1 @@ -1025,32 +986,13 @@ efficiently, it is doing less comparisons:: py_cmp_func 1 7 >>> -Ah, we're nearly done! The last step is to actually compare the two items and -return a useful result:: +Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result:: >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b): ... print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0]) ... return a[0] - b[0] ... >>> - -Final run on Windows:: - - >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)) # doctest: +WINDOWS - py_cmp_func 33 7 - py_cmp_func 99 33 - py_cmp_func 5 99 - py_cmp_func 1 99 - py_cmp_func 33 7 - py_cmp_func 1 33 - py_cmp_func 5 33 - py_cmp_func 5 7 - py_cmp_func 1 7 - py_cmp_func 5 1 - >>> - -and on Linux:: - >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)) # doctest: +LINUX py_cmp_func 5 1 py_cmp_func 33 99 @@ -1059,9 +1001,6 @@ and on Linux:: py_cmp_func 5 7 >>> -It is quite interesting to see that the Windows :func:`qsort` function needs -more comparisons than the linux version! - As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:: >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ") @@ -1071,9 +1010,9 @@ As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:: **Important note for callback functions:** -Make sure you keep references to CFUNCTYPE objects as long as they are used from -C code. :mod:`ctypes` doesn't, and if you don't, they may be garbage collected, -crashing your program when a callback is made. +Make sure you keep references to :func:`CFUNCTYPE` objects as long as they are +used from C code. :mod:`ctypes` doesn't, and if you don't, they may be garbage +collected, crashing your program when a callback is made. .. _ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls: @@ -1350,7 +1289,10 @@ way is to instantiate one of the following classes: assumed to return the windows specific :class:`HRESULT` code. :class:`HRESULT` values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with additional error code. If the return value signals a - failure, an :class:`WindowsError` is automatically raised. + failure, an :class:`OSError` is automatically raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`WindowsError` used to be raised. .. class:: WinDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False) @@ -1967,11 +1909,14 @@ Utility functions .. function:: WinError(code=None, descr=None) Windows only: this function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes. It - creates an instance of WindowsError. If *code* is not specified, + creates an instance of OSError. If *code* is not specified, ``GetLastError`` is called to determine the error code. If *descr* is not specified, :func:`FormatError` is called to get a textual description of the error. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + An instance of :exc:`WindowsError` used to be created. + .. function:: wstring_at(address, size=-1) diff --git a/Doc/library/curses.rst b/Doc/library/curses.rst index 11ab5d0..9e5cb55 100644 --- a/Doc/library/curses.rst +++ b/Doc/library/curses.rst @@ -599,6 +599,17 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions: Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`getch` is called. +.. function:: unget_wch(ch) + + Push *ch* so the next :meth:`get_wch` will return it. + + .. note:: + + Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`get_wch` is called. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: ungetmouse(id, x, y, z, bstate) Push a :const:`KEY_MOUSE` event onto the input queue, associating the given @@ -643,7 +654,7 @@ Window Objects -------------- Window objects, as returned by :func:`initscr` and :func:`newwin` above, have -the following methods: +the following methods and attributes: .. method:: window.addch(ch[, attr]) @@ -831,6 +842,16 @@ the following methods: event. +.. attribute:: window.encoding + + Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and characters). + The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent window when a subwindow + is created, for example with :meth:`window.subwin`. By default, the locale + encoding is used (see :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: window.erase() Clear the window. @@ -854,11 +875,20 @@ the following methods: until a key is pressed. +.. method:: window.get_wch([y, x]) + + Get a wide character. Return a character for most keys, or an integer for + function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: window.getkey([y, x]) Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as :meth:`getch` - does. Function keys, keypad keys and so on return a multibyte string containing - the key name. In no-delay mode, an exception is raised if there is no input. + does. Function keys, keypad keys and other special keys return a multibyte + string containing the key name. In no-delay mode, an exception is raised if + there is no input. .. method:: window.getmaxyx() diff --git a/Doc/library/datatypes.rst b/Doc/library/datatypes.rst index 6b4a71a..d0382e0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/datatypes.rst +++ b/Doc/library/datatypes.rst @@ -21,11 +21,10 @@ The following modules are documented in this chapter: datetime.rst calendar.rst collections.rst + collections.abc.rst heapq.rst bisect.rst array.rst - sched.rst - queue.rst weakref.rst types.rst copy.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/datetime.rst b/Doc/library/datetime.rst index 88fa01c..7c0aac3 100644 --- a/Doc/library/datetime.rst +++ b/Doc/library/datetime.rst @@ -404,12 +404,19 @@ Other constructors, all class methods: .. classmethod:: date.fromtimestamp(timestamp) Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is returned - by :func:`time.time`. This may raise :exc:`ValueError`, if the timestamp is out - of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime` function. + by :func:`time.time`. This may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is out + of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime` function, + and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`localtime` failure. It's common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038. Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by :meth:`fromtimestamp`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp + is out of the range of values supported by the platform C + :c:func:`localtime` function. Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of + :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`localtime` failure. + .. classmethod:: date.fromordinal(ordinal) @@ -713,23 +720,44 @@ Other constructors, all class methods: equivalent to ``tz.fromutc(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp).replace(tzinfo=tz))``. - :meth:`fromtimestamp` may raise :exc:`ValueError`, if the timestamp is out of + :meth:`fromtimestamp` may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is out of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime` or - :c:func:`gmtime` functions. It's common for this to be restricted to years in + :c:func:`gmtime` functions, and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`localtime` or + :c:func:`gmtime` failure. + It's common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038. Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by :meth:`fromtimestamp`, and then it's possible to have two timestamps differing by a second that yield identical :class:`.datetime` objects. See also :meth:`utcfromtimestamp`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp + is out of the range of values supported by the platform C + :c:func:`localtime` or :c:func:`gmtime` functions. Raise :exc:`OSError` + instead of :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`localtime` or :c:func:`gmtime` + failure. + .. classmethod:: datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp) Return the UTC :class:`.datetime` corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, with - :attr:`tzinfo` ``None``. This may raise :exc:`ValueError`, if the timestamp is - out of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`gmtime` function. + :attr:`tzinfo` ``None``. This may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is + out of the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`gmtime` function, + and :exc:`OSError` on :c:func:`gmtime` failure. It's common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038. See also :meth:`fromtimestamp`. + On the POSIX compliant platforms, ``utcfromtimestamp(timestamp)`` + is equivalent to the following expression:: + + datetime(1970, 1, 1) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp) + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Raise :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`ValueError` if the timestamp + is out of the range of values supported by the platform C + :c:func:`gmtime` function. Raise :exc:`OSError` instead of + :exc:`ValueError` on :c:func:`gmtime` failure. + .. classmethod:: datetime.fromordinal(ordinal) @@ -873,13 +901,20 @@ Supported operations: *datetime1* is considered less than *datetime2* when *datetime1* precedes *datetime2* in time. - If one comparand is naive and the other is aware, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. + If one comparand is naive and the other is aware, :exc:`TypeError` + is raised if an order comparison is attempted. For equality + comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances. + If both comparands are aware, and have the same :attr:`tzinfo` attribute, the common :attr:`tzinfo` attribute is ignored and the base datetimes are compared. If both comparands are aware and have different :attr:`tzinfo` attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting their UTC offsets (obtained from ``self.utcoffset()``). + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`datetime` + instances don't raise :exc:`TypeError`. + .. note:: In order to stop comparison from falling back to the default scheme of comparing @@ -922,17 +957,22 @@ Instance methods: datetime with no conversion of date and time data. -.. method:: datetime.astimezone(tz) +.. method:: datetime.astimezone(tz=None) - Return a :class:`.datetime` object with new :attr:`tzinfo` attribute *tz*, + Return a :class:`datetime` object with new :attr:`tzinfo` attribute *tz*, adjusting the date and time data so the result is the same UTC time as *self*, but in *tz*'s local time. - *tz* must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and its + If provided, *tz* must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and its :meth:`utcoffset` and :meth:`dst` methods must not return ``None``. *self* must be aware (``self.tzinfo`` must not be ``None``, and ``self.utcoffset()`` must not return ``None``). + If called without arguments (or with ``tz=None``) the system local + timezone is assumed. The ``tzinfo`` attribute of the converted + datetime instance will be set to an instance of :class:`timezone` + with the zone name and offset obtained from the OS. + If ``self.tzinfo`` is *tz*, ``self.astimezone(tz)`` is equal to *self*: no adjustment of date or time data is performed. Else the result is local time in time zone *tz*, representing the same UTC time as *self*: after @@ -959,6 +999,9 @@ Instance methods: # Convert from UTC to tz's local time. return tz.fromutc(utc) + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *tz* now can be omitted. + .. method:: datetime.utcoffset() @@ -1015,6 +1058,39 @@ Instance methods: Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date. The same as ``self.date().toordinal()``. +.. method:: datetime.timestamp() + + Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the :class:`datetime` + instance. The return value is a :class:`float` similar to that + returned by :func:`time.time`. + + Naive :class:`datetime` instances are assumed to represent local + time and this method relies on the platform C :c:func:`mktime` + function to perform the conversion. Since :class:`datetime` + supports wider range of values than :c:func:`mktime` on many + platforms, this method may raise :exc:`OverflowError` for times far + in the past or far in the future. + + For aware :class:`datetime` instances, the return value is computed + as:: + + (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds() + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. note:: + + There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly from a + naive :class:`datetime` instance representing UTC time. If your + application uses this convention and your system timezone is not + set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying + ``tzinfo=timezone.utc``:: + + timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp() + + or by calculating the timestamp directly:: + + timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1) .. method:: datetime.weekday() @@ -1254,7 +1330,10 @@ Supported operations: * comparison of :class:`.time` to :class:`.time`, where *a* is considered less than *b* when *a* precedes *b* in time. If one comparand is naive and the other - is aware, :exc:`TypeError` is raised. If both comparands are aware, and have + is aware, :exc:`TypeError` is raised if an order comparison is attempted. For equality + comparisons, naive instances are never equal to aware instances. + + If both comparands are aware, and have the same :attr:`tzinfo` attribute, the common :attr:`tzinfo` attribute is ignored and the base times are compared. If both comparands are aware and have different :attr:`tzinfo` attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by @@ -1264,6 +1343,10 @@ Supported operations: different type, :exc:`TypeError` is raised unless the comparison is ``==`` or ``!=``. The latter cases return :const:`False` or :const:`True`, respectively. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`time` instances + don't raise :exc:`TypeError`. + * hash, use as dict key * efficient pickling @@ -1587,11 +1670,12 @@ only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)). :class:`timezone` Objects -------------------------- -A :class:`timezone` object represents a timezone that is defined by a -fixed offset from UTC. Note that objects of this class cannot be used -to represent timezone information in the locations where different -offsets are used in different days of the year or where historical -changes have been made to civil time. +The :class:`timezone` class is a subclass of :class:`tzinfo`, each +instance of which represents a timezone defined by a fixed offset from +UTC. Note that objects of this class cannot be used to represent +timezone information in the locations where different offsets are used +in different days of the year or where historical changes have been +made to civil time. .. class:: timezone(offset[, name]) @@ -1760,8 +1844,7 @@ format codes. | | decimal number [00,99]. | | +-----------+--------------------------------+-------+ | ``%Y`` | Year with century as a decimal | \(5) | -| | number [0001,9999] (strptime), | | -| | [1000,9999] (strftime). | | +| | number [0001,9999]. | | +-----------+--------------------------------+-------+ | ``%z`` | UTC offset in the form +HHMM | \(6) | | | or -HHMM (empty string if the | | @@ -1795,10 +1878,7 @@ Notes: calculations when the day of the week and the year are specified. (5) - For technical reasons, :meth:`strftime` method does not support - dates before year 1000: ``t.strftime(format)`` will raise a - :exc:`ValueError` when ``t.year < 1000`` even if ``format`` does - not contain ``%Y`` directive. The :meth:`strptime` method can + The :meth:`strptime` method can parse years in the full [1, 9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width. @@ -1806,6 +1886,10 @@ Notes: In previous versions, :meth:`strftime` method was restricted to years >= 1900. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + In version 3.2, :meth:`strftime` method was restricted to + years >= 1000. + (6) For example, if :meth:`utcoffset` returns ``timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)``, ``%z`` is replaced with the string ``'-0330'``. diff --git a/Doc/library/debug.rst b/Doc/library/debug.rst index b2ee4fa..c69fb1c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/debug.rst +++ b/Doc/library/debug.rst @@ -10,7 +10,8 @@ allowing you to identify bottlenecks in your programs. .. toctree:: bdb.rst + faulthandler.rst pdb.rst profile.rst timeit.rst - trace.rst
\ No newline at end of file + trace.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/decimal.rst b/Doc/library/decimal.rst index ef8b43f..4a2b2d0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/decimal.rst +++ b/Doc/library/decimal.rst @@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ .. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger <python at rcn.com> .. moduleauthor:: Aahz <aahz at pobox.com> .. moduleauthor:: Tim Peters <tim.one at comcast.net> +.. moduleauthor:: Stefan Krah <skrah at bytereef.org> .. sectionauthor:: Raymond D. Hettinger <python at rcn.com> .. import modules for testing inline doctests with the Sphinx doctest builder @@ -20,8 +21,9 @@ # make sure each group gets a fresh context setcontext(Context()) -The :mod:`decimal` module provides support for decimal floating point -arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the :class:`float` datatype: +The :mod:`decimal` module provides support for fast correctly-rounded +decimal floating point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the +:class:`float` datatype: * Decimal "is based on a floating-point model which was designed with people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle -- computers must @@ -92,7 +94,7 @@ computation. Depending on the needs of the application, signals may be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as exceptions. The signals in the decimal module are: :const:`Clamped`, :const:`InvalidOperation`, :const:`DivisionByZero`, :const:`Inexact`, :const:`Rounded`, :const:`Subnormal`, -:const:`Overflow`, and :const:`Underflow`. +:const:`Overflow`, :const:`Underflow` and :const:`FloatOperation`. For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler. When a signal is encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is @@ -122,7 +124,7 @@ precision, rounding, or enabled traps:: >>> from decimal import * >>> getcontext() - Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, + Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999, capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero, InvalidOperation]) @@ -132,7 +134,7 @@ Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or tuples. Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact conversion of the value of that integer or float. Decimal numbers include special values such as :const:`NaN` which stands for "Not a number", positive and negative -:const:`Infinity`, and :const:`-0`. +:const:`Infinity`, and :const:`-0`:: >>> getcontext().prec = 28 >>> Decimal(10) @@ -152,6 +154,25 @@ value of that integer or float. Decimal numbers include special values such as >>> Decimal('-Infinity') Decimal('-Infinity') +If the :exc:`FloatOperation` signal is trapped, accidental mixing of +decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises +an exception:: + + >>> c = getcontext() + >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True + >>> Decimal(3.14) + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>] + >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7 + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>] + >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5 + True + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of digits input. Context precision and rounding only come into play during arithmetic operations. @@ -169,6 +190,16 @@ operations. >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285') Decimal('5.85988') +If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing +a decimal raises :class:`InvalidOperation`:: + + >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999") + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>] + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python. Here is a small decimal floating point flying circus: @@ -244,7 +275,7 @@ enabled: Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857') >>> ExtendedContext - Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, + Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999, capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[]) >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext) >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7) @@ -269,7 +300,7 @@ using the :meth:`clear_flags` method. :: >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113) Decimal('3.14159292') >>> getcontext() - Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, + Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999, capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[]) The *flags* entry shows that the rational approximation to :const:`Pi` was @@ -358,6 +389,10 @@ Decimal objects The argument to the constructor is now permitted to be a :class:`float` instance. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :class:`float` arguments raise an exception if the :exc:`FloatOperation` + trap is set. By default the trap is off. + Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in numeric types such as :class:`float` and :class:`int`. All of the usual math operations and special methods apply. Likewise, decimal objects can be @@ -702,6 +737,11 @@ Decimal objects resulting exponent is greater than :attr:`Emax` or less than :attr:`Etiny`. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + *watchexp* is an implementation detail from the pure Python version + and is not present in the C version. It will be removed in version + 3.4, where it defaults to ``True``. + .. method:: radix() Return ``Decimal(10)``, the radix (base) in which the :class:`Decimal` @@ -880,39 +920,33 @@ described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts: In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this context at all. Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as described below. - The default values are precision=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, and enabled traps - for Overflow, InvalidOperation, and DivisionByZero. + The default values are :attr:`prec`\ =\ :const:`28`, + :attr:`rounding`\ =\ :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`, + and enabled traps for :class:`Overflow`, :class:`InvalidOperation`, and + :class:`DivisionByZero`. In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the :class:`Context` constructor. -.. class:: Context(prec=None, rounding=None, traps=None, flags=None, Emin=None, Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None) +.. class:: Context(prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None, Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None) Creates a new context. If a field is not specified or is :const:`None`, the default values are copied from the :const:`DefaultContext`. If the *flags* field is not specified or is :const:`None`, all flags are cleared. - The *prec* field is a positive integer that sets the precision for arithmetic - operations in the context. + *prec* is an integer in the range [:const:`1`, :const:`MAX_PREC`] that sets + the precision for arithmetic operations in the context. - The *rounding* option is one of: - - * :const:`ROUND_CEILING` (towards :const:`Infinity`), - * :const:`ROUND_DOWN` (towards zero), - * :const:`ROUND_FLOOR` (towards :const:`-Infinity`), - * :const:`ROUND_HALF_DOWN` (to nearest with ties going towards zero), - * :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN` (to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer), - * :const:`ROUND_HALF_UP` (to nearest with ties going away from zero), or - * :const:`ROUND_UP` (away from zero). - * :const:`ROUND_05UP` (away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero - would have been 0 or 5; otherwise towards zero) + The *rounding* option is one of the constants listed in the section + `Rounding Modes`_. The *traps* and *flags* fields list any signals to be set. Generally, new contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear. The *Emin* and *Emax* fields are integers specifying the outer limits allowable - for exponents. + for exponents. *Emin* must be in the range [:const:`MIN_EMIN`, :const:`0`], + *Emax* in the range [:const:`0`, :const:`MAX_EMAX`]. The *capitals* field is either :const:`0` or :const:`1` (the default). If set to :const:`1`, exponents are printed with a capital :const:`E`; otherwise, a @@ -951,6 +985,12 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the Resets all of the flags to :const:`0`. + .. method:: clear_traps() + + Resets all of the traps to :const:`0`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. method:: copy() Return a duplicate of the context. @@ -1250,8 +1290,13 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the With two arguments, compute ``x**y``. If ``x`` is negative then ``y`` must be integral. The result will be inexact unless ``y`` is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed exactly in 'precision' digits. - The result should always be correctly rounded, using the rounding mode of - the current thread's context. + The rounding mode of the context is used. Results are always correctly-rounded + in the Python version. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The C module computes :meth:`power` in terms of the correctly-rounded + :meth:`exp` and :meth:`ln` functions. The result is well-defined but + only "almost always correctly-rounded". With three arguments, compute ``(x**y) % modulo``. For the three argument form, the following restrictions on the arguments hold: @@ -1339,6 +1384,69 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the .. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +.. _decimal-rounding-modes: + +Constants +--------- + +The constants in this section are only relevant for the C module. They +are also included in the pure Python version for compatibility. + ++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+ +| | 32-bit | 64-bit | ++=====================+=====================+===============================+ +| .. data:: MAX_PREC | :const:`425000000` | :const:`999999999999999999` | ++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+ +| .. data:: MAX_EMAX | :const:`425000000` | :const:`999999999999999999` | ++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+ +| .. data:: MIN_EMIN | :const:`-425000000` | :const:`-999999999999999999` | ++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+ +| .. data:: MIN_ETINY | :const:`-849999999` | :const:`-1999999999999999997` | ++---------------------+---------------------+-------------------------------+ + + +.. data:: HAVE_THREADS + + The default value is True. If Python is compiled without threads, the + C version automatically disables the expensive thread local context + machinery. In this case, the value is False. + +Rounding modes +-------------- + +.. data:: ROUND_CEILING + + Round towards :const:`Infinity`. + +.. data:: ROUND_DOWN + + Round towards zero. + +.. data:: ROUND_FLOOR + + Round towards :const:`-Infinity`. + +.. data:: ROUND_HALF_DOWN + + Round to nearest with ties going towards zero. + +.. data:: ROUND_HALF_EVEN + + Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer. + +.. data:: ROUND_HALF_UP + + Round to nearest with ties going away from zero. + +.. data:: ROUND_UP + + Round away from zero. + +.. data:: ROUND_05UP + + Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero would have + been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero. + .. _decimal-signals: @@ -1403,7 +1511,6 @@ condition. Infinity / Infinity x % 0 Infinity % x - x._rescale( non-integer ) sqrt(-x) and x > 0 0 ** 0 x ** (non-integer) @@ -1446,6 +1553,23 @@ condition. Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding. :class:`Inexact` and :class:`Subnormal` are also signaled. + +.. class:: FloatOperation + + Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals. + + If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals is + permitted in the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor, + :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal` and all comparison operators. + Both conversion and comparisons are exact. Any occurrence of a mixed + operation is silently recorded by setting :exc:`FloatOperation` in the + context flags. Explicit conversions with :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.from_float` + or :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal_from_float` do not set the flag. + + Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and explicit + conversions are silent. All other mixed operations raise :exc:`FloatOperation`. + + The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:: exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception) @@ -1458,10 +1582,12 @@ The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:: InvalidOperation Rounded Subnormal + FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError) .. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + .. _decimal-notes: Floating Point Notes @@ -1571,7 +1697,7 @@ normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal to zero: >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity') - Decimal('0E-1000000026') + Decimal('0E-1000026') .. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% @@ -1583,7 +1709,7 @@ Working with threads The :func:`getcontext` function accesses a different :class:`Context` object for each thread. Having separate thread contexts means that threads may make -changes (such as ``getcontext.prec=10``) without interfering with other threads. +changes (such as ``getcontext().prec=10``) without interfering with other threads. Likewise, the :func:`setcontext` function automatically assigns its target to the current thread. diff --git a/Doc/library/depgraph-output.png b/Doc/library/depgraph-output.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..960bb1b --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/depgraph-output.png diff --git a/Doc/library/development.rst b/Doc/library/development.rst index c822e08..2368769 100644 --- a/Doc/library/development.rst +++ b/Doc/library/development.rst @@ -19,5 +19,8 @@ The list of modules described in this chapter is: pydoc.rst doctest.rst unittest.rst + unittest.mock.rst + unittest.mock-examples.rst 2to3.rst test.rst + venv.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/difflib.rst b/Doc/library/difflib.rst index bdc37b3..836e240 100644 --- a/Doc/library/difflib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/difflib.rst @@ -752,8 +752,8 @@ It is also contained in the Python source distribution, as # we're passing these as arguments to the diff function fromdate = time.ctime(os.stat(fromfile).st_mtime) todate = time.ctime(os.stat(tofile).st_mtime) - fromlines = open(fromfile, 'U').readlines() - tolines = open(tofile, 'U').readlines() + with open(fromlines) as fromf, open(tofile) as tof: + fromlines, tolines = list(fromf), list(tof) if options.u: diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, diff --git a/Doc/library/dis.rst b/Doc/library/dis.rst index 79cc583..6d08a0c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/dis.rst +++ b/Doc/library/dis.rst @@ -171,11 +171,6 @@ The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions. **General instructions** -.. opcode:: STOP_CODE - - Indicates end-of-code to the compiler, not used by the interpreter. - - .. opcode:: NOP Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer. @@ -436,6 +431,13 @@ the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop. Pops ``TOS`` and yields it from a :term:`generator`. +.. opcode:: YIELD_FROM + + Pops ``TOS`` and delegates to it as a subiterator from a :term:`generator`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. opcode:: IMPORT_STAR Loads all symbols not starting with ``'_'`` directly from the module TOS to the @@ -752,9 +754,10 @@ the more significant byte last. .. opcode:: MAKE_FUNCTION (argc) - Pushes a new function object on the stack. TOS is the code associated with the - function. The function object is defined to have *argc* default parameters, - which are found below TOS. + Pushes a new function object on the stack. TOS is the + :term:`qualified name` of the function; TOS1 is the code associated with + the function. The function object is defined to have *argc* default parameters, + which are found below TOS1. .. opcode:: MAKE_CLOSURE (argc) diff --git a/Doc/library/distutils.rst b/Doc/library/distutils.rst index 238b79d..11a2949 100644 --- a/Doc/library/distutils.rst +++ b/Doc/library/distutils.rst @@ -12,18 +12,14 @@ additional modules into a Python installation. The new modules may be either 100%-pure Python, or may be extension modules written in C, or may be collections of Python packages which include modules coded in both Python and C. -This package is discussed in two separate chapters: +User documentation and API reference are provided in another document: .. seealso:: :ref:`distutils-index` The manual for developers and packagers of Python modules. This describes how to prepare :mod:`distutils`\ -based packages so that they may be - easily installed into an existing Python installation. - - :ref:`install-index` - An "administrators" manual which includes information on installing - modules into an existing Python installation. You do not need to be a - Python programmer to read this manual. - + easily installed into an existing Python installation. If also contains + instructions for end-users wanting to install a distutils-based package, + :ref:`install-index`. diff --git a/Doc/library/email.errors.rst b/Doc/library/email.errors.rst index d8f330f..9f0a9e2 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.errors.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.errors.rst @@ -73,17 +73,38 @@ this class is *not* an exception! * :class:`StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- The start boundary claimed in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header was never found. +* :class:`CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- A start boundary was found, but + no corresponding close boundary was ever found. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + * :class:`FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect` -- The message had a continuation line as its first header line. * :class:`MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect` - A "Unix From" header was found in the middle of a header block. +* :class:`MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect` - A line was found while parsing + headers that had no leading white space but contained no ':'. Parsing + continues assuming that the line represents the first line of the body. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + * :class:`MalformedHeaderDefect` -- A header was found that was missing a colon, or was otherwise malformed. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This defect has not been used for several Python versions. + * :class:`MultipartInvariantViolationDefect` -- A message claimed to be a :mimetype:`multipart`, but no subparts were found. Note that when a message has this defect, its :meth:`is_multipart` method may return false even though its content type claims to be :mimetype:`multipart`. +* :class:`InvalidBase64PaddingDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64 + enocded bytes, the padding was not correct. Enough padding is added to + perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid. + +* :class:`InvalidBase64CharactersDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64 + enocded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphebet were encountered. + The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid. diff --git a/Doc/library/email.generator.rst b/Doc/library/email.generator.rst index 88c62a2..c172acb 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.generator.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.generator.rst @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ Here are the public methods of the :class:`Generator` class, imported from the :mod:`email.generator` module: -.. class:: Generator(outfp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=78) +.. class:: Generator(outfp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=78, *, policy=None) The constructor for the :class:`Generator` class takes a :term:`file-like object` called *outfp* for an argument. *outfp* must support the :meth:`write` method @@ -53,10 +53,17 @@ Here are the public methods of the :class:`Generator` class, imported from the :class:`~email.header.Header` class. Set to zero to disable header wrapping. The default is 78, as recommended (but not required) by :rfc:`2822`. + The *policy* keyword specifies a :mod:`~email.policy` object that controls a + number of aspects of the generator's operation. If no *policy* is specified, + then the *policy* attached to the message object passed to :attr:`flatten` + is used. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword. + The other public :class:`Generator` methods are: - .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep='\\n') + .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None) Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted at *msg* to the output file specified when the :class:`Generator` instance @@ -72,19 +79,20 @@ Here are the public methods of the :class:`Generator` class, imported from the Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed. Optional *linesep* specifies the line separator character used to - terminate lines in the output. It defaults to ``\n`` because that is - the most useful value for Python application code (other library packages - expect ``\n`` separated lines). ``linesep=\r\n`` can be used to - generate output with RFC-compliant line separators. + terminate lines in the output. If specified it overrides the value + specified by the *msg*\'s or ``Generator``\'s ``policy``. - Messages parsed with a Bytes parser that have a - :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of 8bit will be converted to a - use a 7bit Content-Transfer-Encoding. Non-ASCII bytes in the headers - will be :rfc:`2047` encoded with a charset of `unknown-8bit`. + Because strings cannot represent non-ASCII bytes, if the policy that + applies when ``flatten`` is run has :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type` + set to ``8bit``, ``Generator`` will operate as if it were set to + ``7bit``. This means that messages parsed with a Bytes parser that have + a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of ``8bit`` will be converted + to a use a ``7bit`` Content-Transfer-Encoding. Non-ASCII bytes in the + headers will be :rfc:`2047` encoded with a charset of ``unknown-8bit``. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 - Added support for re-encoding 8bit message bodies, and the *linesep* - argument. + Added support for re-encoding ``8bit`` message bodies, and the + *linesep* argument. .. method:: clone(fp) @@ -103,7 +111,8 @@ As a convenience, see the :class:`~email.message.Message` methods formatted string representation of a message object. For more detail, see :mod:`email.message`. -.. class:: BytesGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=78) +.. class:: BytesGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=78, *, \ + policy=policy.default) The constructor for the :class:`BytesGenerator` class takes a binary :term:`file-like object` called *outfp* for an argument. *outfp* must @@ -125,19 +134,31 @@ formatted string representation of a message object. For more detail, see wrapping. The default is 78, as recommended (but not required) by :rfc:`2822`. + The *policy* keyword specifies a :mod:`~email.policy` object that controls a + number of aspects of the generator's operation. The default policy + maintains backward compatibility. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword. + The other public :class:`BytesGenerator` methods are: - .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep='\n') + .. method:: flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None) Print the textual representation of the message object structure rooted at *msg* to the output file specified when the :class:`BytesGenerator` instance was created. Subparts are visited depth-first and the resulting - text will be properly MIME encoded. If the input that created the *msg* - contained bytes with the high bit set and those bytes have not been - modified, they will be copied faithfully to the output, even if doing so - is not strictly RFC compliant. (To produce strictly RFC compliant - output, use the :class:`Generator` class.) + text will be properly MIME encoded. If the :mod:`~email.policy` option + :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type` is ``8bit`` (the default), + then any bytes with the high bit set in the original parsed message that + have not been modified will be copied faithfully to the output. If + ``cte_type`` is ``7bit``, the bytes will be converted as needed + using an ASCII-compatible Content-Transfer-Encoding. In particular, + RFC-invalid non-ASCII bytes in headers will be encoded using the MIME + ``unknown-8bit`` character set, thus rendering them RFC-compliant. + + .. XXX: There should be a complementary option that just does the RFC + compliance transformation but leaves CTE 8bit parts alone. Messages parsed with a Bytes parser that have a :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` of 8bit will be reconstructed @@ -152,10 +173,8 @@ formatted string representation of a message object. For more detail, see Note that for subparts, no envelope header is ever printed. Optional *linesep* specifies the line separator character used to - terminate lines in the output. It defaults to ``\n`` because that is - the most useful value for Python application code (other library packages - expect ``\n`` separated lines). ``linesep=\r\n`` can be used to - generate output with RFC-compliant line separators. + terminate lines in the output. If specified it overrides the value + specified by the ``Generator``\ 's ``policy``. .. method:: clone(fp) diff --git a/Doc/library/email.header.rst b/Doc/library/email.header.rst index 7d2dc2e..346d23f 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.header.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.header.rst @@ -31,8 +31,8 @@ For example:: >>> msg = Message() >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1') >>> msg['Subject'] = h - >>> print(msg.as_string()) - Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?= + >>> msg.as_string() + 'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n' @@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ The :mod:`email.header` module also provides the following convenient functions. >>> from email.header import decode_header >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=') - [('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')] + [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')] .. function:: make_header(decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ') diff --git a/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst b/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c884159 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst @@ -0,0 +1,452 @@ +:mod:`email.headerregistry`: Custom Header Objects +-------------------------------------------------- + +.. module:: email.headerregistry + :synopsis: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name + +.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> +.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> + + +.. note:: + + The headerregistry module has been included in the standard library on a + :term:`provisional basis <provisional package>`. Backwards incompatible + changes (up to and including removal of the module) may occur if deemed + necessary by the core developers. + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + as a :term:`provisional module <provisional package>`. + +Headers are represented by customized subclasses of :class:`str`. The +particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the +:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` of the :mod:`~email.policy` in +effect when the headers are created. This section documents the particular +``header_factory`` implemented by the email package for handling :RFC:`5322` +compliant email messages, which not only provides customized header objects for +various header types, but also provides an extension mechanism for applications +to add their own custom header types. + +When using any of the policy objects derived from +:data:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy`, all headers are produced by +:class:`.HeaderRegistry` and have :class:`.BaseHeader` as their last base +class. Each header class has an additional base class that is determined by +the type of the header. For example, many headers have the class +:class:`.UnstructuredHeader` as their other base class. The specialized second +class for a header is determined by the name of the header, using a lookup +table stored in the :class:`.HeaderRegistry`. All of this is managed +transparently for the typical application program, but interfaces are provided +for modifying the default behavior for use by more complex applications. + +The sections below first document the header base classes and their attributes, +followed by the API for modifying the behavior of :class:`.HeaderRegistry`, and +finally the support classes used to represent the data parsed from structured +headers. + + +.. class:: BaseHeader(name, value) + + *name* and *value* are passed to ``BaseHeader`` from the + :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` call. The string value of + any header object is the *value* fully decoded to unicode. + + This base class defines the following read-only properties: + + + .. attribute:: name + + The name of the header (the portion of the field before the ':'). This + is exactly the value passed in the :attr:`~EmailPolicy.header_factory` + call for *name*; that is, case is preserved. + + + .. attribute:: defects + + A tuple of :exc:`~email.errors.HeaderDefect` instances reporting any + RFC compliance problems found during parsing. The email package tries to + be complete about detecting compliance issues. See the :mod:`errors` + module for a discussion of the types of defects that may be reported. + + + .. attribute:: max_count + + The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the same + ``name``. A value of ``None`` means unlimited. The ``BaseHeader`` value + for this attribute is ``None``; it is expected that specialized header + classes will override this value as needed. + + ``BaseHeader`` also provides the following method, which is called by the + email library code and should not in general be called by application + programs: + + .. method:: fold(*, policy) + + Return a string containing :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.linesep` + characters as required to correctly fold the header according + to *policy*. A :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.cte_type` of + ``8bit`` will be treated as if it were ``7bit``, since strings + may not contain binary data. + + + ``BaseHeader`` by itself cannot be used to create a header object. It + defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with in order to + produce the header object. Specifically, ``BaseHeader`` requires that + the specialized class provide a :func:`classmethod` named ``parse``. This + method is called as follows:: + + parse(string, kwds) + + ``kwds`` is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key, ``defects``. + ``defects`` is an empty list. The parse method should append any detected + defects to this list. On return, the ``kwds`` dictionary *must* contain + values for at least the keys ``decoded`` and ``defects``. ``decoded`` + should be the string value for the header (that is, the header value fully + decoded to unicode). The parse method should assume that *string* may + contain transport encoded parts, but should correctly handle all valid + unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded header values. + + ``BaseHeader``'s ``__new__`` then creates the header instance, and calls its + ``init`` method. The specialized class only needs to provide an ``init`` + method if it wishes to set additional attributes beyond those provided by + ``BaseHeader`` itself. Such an ``init`` method should look like this:: + + def init(self, *args, **kw): + self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr') + super().init(*args, **kw) + + That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the ``kwds`` + dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining contents of + ``kw`` (and ``args``) passed to the ``BaseHeader`` ``init`` method. + + +.. class:: UnstructuredHeader + + An "unstructured" header is the default type of header in :rfc:`5322`. + Any header that does not have a specified syntax is treated as + unstructured. The classic example of an unstructured header is the + :mailheader:`Subject` header. + + In :rfc:`5322`, an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text in the + ASCII character set. :rfc:`2047`, however, has an :rfc:`5322` compatible + mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII characters within a header + value. When a *value* containing encoded words is passed to the + constructor, the ``UnstructuredHeader`` parser converts such encoded words + back in to the original unicode, following the :rfc:`2047` rules for + unstructured text. The parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain + non-compliant encoded words. Defects are registered in such cases, as well + as defects for issues such as invalid characters within the encoded words or + the non-encoded text. + + This header type provides no additional attributes. + + +.. class:: DateHeader + + :rfc:`5322` specifies a very specific format for dates within email headers. + The ``DateHeader`` parser recognizes that date format, as well as + recognizing a number of variant forms that are sometimes found "in the + wild". + + This header type provides the following additional attributes: + + .. attribute:: datetime + + If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one form or + another, this attribute will contain a :class:`~datetime.datetime` + instance representing that date. If the timezone of the input date is + specified as ``-0000`` (indicating it is in UTC but contains no + information about the source timezone), then :attr:`.datetime` will be a + naive :class:`~datetime.datetime`. If a specific timezone offset is + found (including `+0000`), then :attr:`.datetime` will contain an aware + ``datetime`` that uses :class:`datetime.timezone` to record the timezone + offset. + + The ``decoded`` value of the header is determined by formatting the + ``datetime`` according to the :rfc:`5322` rules; that is, it is set to:: + + email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime) + + When creating a ``DateHeader``, *value* may be + :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance. This means, for example, that + the following code is valid and does what one would expect:: + + msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21) + + Because this is a naive ``datetime`` it will be interpreted as a UTC + timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of ``-0000``. Much + more useful is to use the :func:`~email.utils.localtime` function from the + :mod:`~email.utils` module:: + + msg['Date'] = utils.localtime() + + This example sets the date header to the current time and date using + the current timezone offset. + + +.. class:: AddressHeader + + Address headers are one of the most complex structured header types. + The ``AddressHeader`` class provides a generic interface to any address + header. + + This header type provides the following additional attributes: + + + .. attribute:: groups + + A tuple of :class:`.Group` objects encoding the + addresses and groups found in the header value. Addresses that are + not part of a group are represented in this list as single-address + ``Groups`` whose :attr:`~.Group.display_name` is ``None``. + + + .. attribute:: addresses + + A tuple of :class:`.Address` objects encoding all + of the individual addresses from the header value. If the header value + contains any groups, the individual addresses from the group are included + in the list at the point where the group occurs in the value (that is, + the list of addresses is "flattened" into a one dimensional list). + + The ``decoded`` value of the header will have all encoded words decoded to + unicode. :class:`~encodings.idna` encoded domain names are also decoded to unicode. The + ``decoded`` value is set by :attr:`~str.join`\ ing the :class:`str` value of + the elements of the ``groups`` attribute with ``', '``. + + A list of :class:`.Address` and :class:`.Group` objects in any combination + may be used to set the value of an address header. ``Group`` objects whose + ``display_name`` is ``None`` will be interpreted as single addresses, which + allows an address list to be copied with groups intact by using the list + obtained ``groups`` attribute of the source header. + + +.. class:: SingleAddressHeader + + A subclass of :class:`.AddressHeader` that adds one + additional attribute: + + + .. attribute:: address + + The single address encoded by the header value. If the header value + actually contains more than one address (which would be a violation of + the RFC under the default :mod:`policy`), accessing this attribute will + result in a :exc:`ValueError`. + + +Many of the above classes also have a ``Unique`` variant (for example, +``UniqueUnstructuredHeader``). The only difference is that in the ``Unique`` +variant, :attr:`~.BaseHeader.max_count` is set to 1. + + +.. class:: MIMEVersionHeader + + There is really only one valid value for the :mailheader:`MIME-Version` + header, and that is ``1.0``. For future proofing, this header class + supports other valid version numbers. If a version number has a valid value + per :rfc:`2045`, then the header object will have non-``None`` values for + the following attributes: + + .. attribute:: version + + The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or comments + removed. + + .. attribute:: major + + The major version number as an integer + + .. attribute:: minor + + The minor version number as an integer + + +.. class:: ParameterizedMIMEHeader + + MOME headers all start with the prefix 'Content-'. Each specific header has + a certain value, described under the class for that header. Some can + also take a list of supplemental parameters, which have a common format. + This class serves as a base for all the MIME headers that take parameters. + + .. attribute:: params + + A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values. + + +.. class:: ContentTypeHeader + + A :class:`ParameterizedMIMEHheader` class that handles the + :mailheader:`Content-Type` header. + + .. attribute:: content_type + + The content type string, in the form ``maintype/subtype``. + + .. attribute:: maintype + + .. attribute:: subtype + + +.. class:: ContentDispositionHeader + + A :class:`ParameterizedMIMEHheader` class that handles the + :mailheader:`Content-Disposition` header. + + .. attribute:: content-disposition + + ``inline`` and ``attachment`` are the only valid values in common use. + + +.. class:: ContentTransferEncoding + + Handles the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header. + + .. attribute:: cte + + Valid values are ``7bit``, ``8bit``, ``base64``, and + ``quoted-printable``. See :rfc:`2045` for more information. + + + +.. class:: HeaderRegistry(base_class=BaseHeader, \ + default_class=UnstructuredHeader, \ + use_default_map=True) + + This is the factory used by :class:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy` by default. + ``HeaderRegistry`` builds the class used to create a header instance + dynamically, using *base_class* and a specialized class retrieved from a + registry that it holds. When a given header name does not appear in the + registry, the class specified by *default_class* is used as the specialized + class. When *use_default_map* is ``True`` (the default), the standard + mapping of header names to classes is copied in to the registry during + initialization. *base_class* is always the last class in the generated + class's ``__bases__`` list. + + The default mappings are: + + :subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader + :date: UniqueDateHeader + :resent-date: DateHeader + :orig-date: UniqueDateHeader + :sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader + :resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader + :to: UniqueAddressHeader + :resent-to: AddressHeader + :cc: UniqueAddressHeader + :resent-cc: AddressHeader + :from: UniqueAddressHeader + :resent-from: AddressHeader + :reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader + + ``HeaderRegistry`` has the following methods: + + + .. method:: map_to_type(self, name, cls) + + *name* is the name of the header to be mapped. It will be converted to + lower case in the registry. *cls* is the specialized class to be used, + along with *base_class*, to create the class used to instantiate headers + that match *name*. + + + .. method:: __getitem__(name) + + Construct and return a class to handle creating a *name* header. + + + .. method:: __call__(name, value) + + Retrieves the specialized header associated with *name* from the + registry (using *default_class* if *name* does not appear in the + registry) and composes it with *base_class* to produce a class, + calls the constructed class's constructor, passing it the same + argument list, and finally returns the class instance created thereby. + + +The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from +structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application program to +construct structured values to assign to specific headers. + + +.. class:: Address(display_name='', username='', domain='', addr_spec=None) + + The class used to represent an email address. The general form of an + address is:: + + [display_name] <username@domain> + + or:: + + username@domain + + where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out in + :rfc:`5322`. + + As a convenience *addr_spec* can be specified instead of *username* and + *domain*, in which case *username* and *domain* will be parsed from the + *addr_spec*. An *addr_spec* must be a properly RFC quoted string; if it is + not ``Address`` will raise an error. Unicode characters are allowed and + will be property encoded when serialized. However, per the RFCs, unicode is + *not* allowed in the username portion of the address. + + .. attribute:: display_name + + The display name portion of the address, if any, with all quoting + removed. If the address does not have a display name, this attribute + will be an empty string. + + .. attribute:: username + + The ``username`` portion of the address, with all quoting removed. + + .. attribute:: domain + + The ``domain`` portion of the address. + + .. attribute:: addr_spec + + The ``username@domain`` portion of the address, correctly quoted + for use as a bare address (the second form shown above). This + attribute is not mutable. + + .. method:: __str__() + + The ``str`` value of the object is the address quoted according to + :rfc:`5322` rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII + characters. + + To support SMTP (:rfc:`5321`), ``Address`` handles one special case: if + ``username`` and ``domain`` are both the empty string (or ``None``), then + the string value of the ``Address`` is ``<>``. + + +.. class:: Group(display_name=None, addresses=None) + + The class used to represent an address group. The general form of an + address group is:: + + display_name: [address-list]; + + As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of a mixture + of groups and single addresses, a ``Group`` may also be used to represent + single addresses that are not part of a group by setting *display_name* to + ``None`` and providing a list of the single address as *addresses*. + + .. attribute:: display_name + + The ``display_name`` of the group. If it is ``None`` and there is + exactly one ``Address`` in ``addresses``, then the ``Group`` represents a + single address that is not in a group. + + .. attribute:: addresses + + A possibly empty tuple of :class:`.Address` objects representing the + addresses in the group. + + .. method:: __str__() + + The ``str`` value of a ``Group`` is formatted according to :rfc:`5322`, + but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any non-ASCII characters. If + ``display_name`` is none and there is a single ``Address`` in the + ``addresses`` list, the ``str`` value will be the same as the ``str`` of + that single ``Address``. diff --git a/Doc/library/email.message.rst b/Doc/library/email.message.rst index f685e54..59ab47d 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.message.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.message.rst @@ -111,10 +111,14 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class: header. When ``True`` and the message is not a multipart, the payload will be decoded if this header's value is ``quoted-printable`` or ``base64``. If some other encoding is used, or :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` - header is missing, or if the payload has bogus base64 data, the payload is + header is missing, the payload is returned as-is (undecoded). In all cases the returned value is binary data. If the message is a multipart and the *decode* flag is ``True``, - then ``None`` is returned. + then ``None`` is returned. If the payload is base64 and it was not + perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the base64 + alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to the message's + defect property (:class:`~email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect` or + :class:`~email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect`, respectively). When *decode* is ``False`` (the default) the body is returned as a string without decoding the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding`. However, diff --git a/Doc/library/email.mime.rst b/Doc/library/email.mime.rst index ae340f7..db5584c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.mime.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.mime.rst @@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ Here are the classes: .. currentmodule:: email.mime.text -.. class:: MIMEText(_text, _subtype='plain', _charset='us-ascii') +.. class:: MIMEText(_text, _subtype='plain', _charset=None) Module: :mod:`email.mime.text` @@ -185,5 +185,5 @@ Here are the classes: minor type and defaults to :mimetype:`plain`. *_charset* is the character set of the text and is passed as a parameter to the :class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart` constructor; it defaults - to ``us-ascii``. No guessing or encoding is performed on the text data. - + to ``us-ascii`` if the string contains only ``ascii`` codepoints, and + ``utf-8`` otherwise. diff --git a/Doc/library/email.parser.rst b/Doc/library/email.parser.rst index 49a59c0..6a43561 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.parser.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.parser.rst @@ -58,12 +58,18 @@ list of defects that it can find. Here is the API for the :class:`FeedParser`: -.. class:: FeedParser(_factory=email.message.Message) +.. class:: FeedParser(_factory=email.message.Message, *, policy=policy.default) Create a :class:`FeedParser` instance. Optional *_factory* is a no-argument callable that will be called whenever a new message object is needed. It defaults to the :class:`email.message.Message` class. + The *policy* keyword specifies a :mod:`~email.policy` object that controls a + number of aspects of the parser's operation. The default policy maintains + backward compatibility. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword. + .. method:: feed(data) Feed the :class:`FeedParser` some more data. *data* should be a string @@ -94,15 +100,18 @@ Parser class API The :class:`Parser` class, imported from the :mod:`email.parser` module, provides an API that can be used to parse a message when the complete contents of the message are available in a string or file. The :mod:`email.parser` -module also provides a second class, called :class:`HeaderParser` which can be -used if you're only interested in the headers of the message. -:class:`HeaderParser` can be much faster in these situations, since it does not -attempt to parse the message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body -as a string. :class:`HeaderParser` has the same API as the :class:`Parser` -class. +module also provides header-only parsers, called :class:`HeaderParser` and +:class:`BytesHeaderParser`, which can be used if you're only interested in the +headers of the message. :class:`HeaderParser` and :class:`BytesHeaderParser` +can be much faster in these situations, since they do not attempt to parse the +message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body as a string. They +have the same API as the :class:`Parser` and :class:`BytesParser` classes. +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + The BytesHeaderParser class. -.. class:: Parser(_class=email.message.Message, strict=None) + +.. class:: Parser(_class=email.message.Message, *, policy=policy.default) The constructor for the :class:`Parser` class takes an optional argument *_class*. This must be a callable factory (such as a function or a class), and @@ -110,13 +119,13 @@ class. :class:`~email.message.Message` (see :mod:`email.message`). The factory will be called without arguments. - The optional *strict* flag is ignored. + The *policy* keyword specifies a :mod:`~email.policy` object that controls a + number of aspects of the parser's operation. The default policy maintains + backward compatibility. - .. deprecated:: 2.4 - Because the :class:`Parser` class is a backward compatible API wrapper - around the new-in-Python 2.4 :class:`FeedParser`, *all* parsing is - effectively non-strict. You should simply stop passing a *strict* flag to - the :class:`Parser` constructor. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed the *strict* argument that was deprecated in 2.4. Added the + *policy* keyword. The other public :class:`Parser` methods are: @@ -147,12 +156,18 @@ class. Optional *headersonly* is as with the :meth:`parse` method. -.. class:: BytesParser(_class=email.message.Message, strict=None) +.. class:: BytesParser(_class=email.message.Message, *, policy=policy.default) This class is exactly parallel to :class:`Parser`, but handles bytes input. The *_class* and *strict* arguments are interpreted in the same way as for - the :class:`Parser` constructor. *strict* is supported only to make porting - code easier; it is deprecated. + the :class:`Parser` constructor. + + The *policy* keyword specifies a :mod:`~email.policy` object that + controls a number of aspects of the parser's operation. The default + policy maintains backward compatibility. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed the *strict* argument. Added the *policy* keyword. .. method:: parse(fp, headeronly=False) @@ -190,39 +205,53 @@ in the top-level :mod:`email` package namespace. .. currentmodule:: email -.. function:: message_from_string(s, _class=email.message.Message, strict=None) +.. function:: message_from_string(s, _class=email.message.Message, *, \ + policy=policy.default) Return a message object structure from a string. This is exactly equivalent to - ``Parser().parsestr(s)``. Optional *_class* and *strict* are interpreted as + ``Parser().parsestr(s)``. *_class* and *policy* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` class constructor. -.. function:: message_from_bytes(s, _class=email.message.Message, strict=None) + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed the *strict* argument. Added the *policy* keyword. + +.. function:: message_from_bytes(s, _class=email.message.Message, *, \ + policy=policy.default) Return a message object structure from a byte string. This is exactly equivalent to ``BytesParser().parsebytes(s)``. Optional *_class* and *strict* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` class constructor. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed the *strict* argument. Added the *policy* keyword. -.. function:: message_from_file(fp, _class=email.message.Message, strict=None) +.. function:: message_from_file(fp, _class=email.message.Message, *, \ + policy=policy.default) Return a message object structure tree from an open :term:`file object`. - This is exactly equivalent to ``Parser().parse(fp)``. Optional *_class* - and *strict* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` class constructor. + This is exactly equivalent to ``Parser().parse(fp)``. *_class* + and *policy* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` class constructor. + + .. versionchanged:: + Removed the *strict* argument. Added the *policy* keyword. -.. function:: message_from_binary_file(fp, _class=email.message.Message, strict=None) +.. function:: message_from_binary_file(fp, _class=email.message.Message, *, \ + policy=policy.default) Return a message object structure tree from an open binary :term:`file object`. This is exactly equivalent to ``BytesParser().parse(fp)``. - Optional *_class* and *strict* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` + *_class* and *policy* are interpreted as with the :class:`Parser` class constructor. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed the *strict* argument. Added the *policy* keyword. Here's an example of how you might use this at an interactive Python prompt:: >>> import email - >>> msg = email.message_from_string(myString) + >>> msg = email.message_from_string(myString) # doctest: +SKIP Additional notes diff --git a/Doc/library/email.policy.rst b/Doc/library/email.policy.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..31b13c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/email.policy.rst @@ -0,0 +1,497 @@ +:mod:`email.policy`: Policy Objects +----------------------------------- + +.. module:: email.policy + :synopsis: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages + +.. moduleauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> +.. sectionauthor:: R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +The :mod:`email` package's prime focus is the handling of email messages as +described by the various email and MIME RFCs. However, the general format of +email messages (a block of header fields each consisting of a name followed by +a colon followed by a value, the whole block followed by a blank line and an +arbitrary 'body'), is a format that has found utility outside of the realm of +email. Some of these uses conform fairly closely to the main RFCs, some do +not. And even when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to +break strict compliance with the RFCs. + +Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all these +disparate use cases. + +A :class:`Policy` object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods that +control the behavior of various components of the email package during use. +:class:`Policy` instances can be passed to various classes and methods in the +email package to alter the default behavior. The settable values and their +defaults are described below. + +There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package. This +policy is named :class:`Compat32`, with a corresponding pre-defined instance +named :const:`compat32`. It provides for complete backward compatibility (in +some cases, including bug compatibility) with the pre-Python3.3 version of the +email package. + +The first part of this documentation covers the features of :class:`Policy`, an +:term:`abstract base class` that defines the features that are common to all +policy objects, including :const:`compat32`. This includes certain hook +methods that are called internally by the email package, which a custom policy +could override to obtain different behavior. + +When a :class:`~email.message.Message` object is created, it acquires a policy. +By default this will be :const:`compat32`, but a different policy can be +specified. If the ``Message`` is created by a :mod:`~email.parser`, a policy +passed to the parser will be the policy used by the ``Message`` it creates. If +the ``Message`` is created by the program, then the policy can be specified +when it is created. When a ``Message`` is passed to a :mod:`~email.generator`, +the generator uses the policy from the ``Message`` by default, but you can also +pass a specific policy to the generator that will override the one stored on +the ``Message`` object. + +:class:`Policy` instances are immutable, but they can be cloned, accepting the +same keyword arguments as the class constructor and returning a new +:class:`Policy` instance that is a copy of the original but with the specified +attributes values changed. + +As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message from a +file on disk and pass it to the system ``sendmail`` program on a Unix system:: + + >>> from email import msg_from_binary_file + >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator + >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE + >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'b') as f: + ... msg = msg_from_binary_file(f) + >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'][0].address], stdin=PIPE) + >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n')) + >>> g.flatten(msg) + >>> p.stdin.close() + >>> rc = p.wait() + +Here we are telling :class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator` to use the RFC +correct line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into +``sendmail's`` ``stdin``, where the default policy would use ``\n`` line +separators. + +Some email package methods accept a *policy* keyword argument, allowing the +policy to be overridden for that method. For example, the following code uses +the :meth:`~email.message.Message.as_string` method of the *msg* object from +the previous example and writes the message to a file using the native line +separators for the platform on which it is running:: + + >>> import os + >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f: + ... f.write(msg.as_string(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)) + +Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator, producing a +policy object whose settings are a combination of the non-default values of the +summed objects:: + + >>> compat_SMTP = email.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n') + >>> compat_strict = email.policy.clone(raise_on_defect=True) + >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict + +This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the objects are +added matters. To illustrate:: + + >>> policy100 = compat32.clone(max_line_length=100) + >>> policy80 = compat32.clone(max_line_length=80) + >>> apolicy = policy100 + Policy80 + >>> apolicy.max_line_length + 80 + >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100 + >>> apolicy.max_line_length + 100 + + +.. class:: Policy(**kw) + + This is the :term:`abstract base class` for all policy classes. It provides + default implementations for a couple of trivial methods, as well as the + implementation of the immutability property, the :meth:`clone` method, and + the constructor semantics. + + The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword arguments. + The arguments that may be specified are any non-method properties on this + class, plus any additional non-method properties on the concrete class. A + value specified in the constructor will override the default value for the + corresponding attribute. + + This class defines the following properties, and thus values for the + following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class: + + .. attribute:: max_line_length + + The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not counting the + end of line character(s). Default is 78, per :rfc:`5322`. A value of + ``0`` or :const:`None` indicates that no line wrapping should be + done at all. + + .. attribute:: linesep + + The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output. The + default is ``\n`` because that's the internal end-of-line discipline used + by Python, though ``\r\n`` is required by the RFCs. + + .. attribute:: cte_type + + Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or are + required to be used. The possible values are: + + ======== =============================================================== + ``7bit`` all data must be "7 bit clean" (ASCII-only). This means that + where necessary data will be encoded using either + quoted-printable or base64 encoding. + + ``8bit`` data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean. Data in headers is + still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see + 'binary_fold' below for an exception), but body parts may use + the ``8bit`` CTE. + ======== =============================================================== + + A ``cte_type`` value of ``8bit`` only works with ``BytesGenerator``, not + ``Generator``, because strings cannot contain binary data. If a + ``Generator`` is operating under a policy that specifies + ``cte_type=8bit``, it will act as if ``cte_type`` is ``7bit``. + + .. attribute:: raise_on_defect + + If :const:`True`, any defects encountered will be raised as errors. If + :const:`False` (the default), defects will be passed to the + :meth:`register_defect` method. + + The following :class:`Policy` method is intended to be called by code using + the email library to create policy instances with custom settings: + + .. method:: clone(**kw) + + Return a new :class:`Policy` instance whose attributes have the same + values as the current instance, except where those attributes are + given new values by the keyword arguments. + + The remaining :class:`Policy` methods are called by the email package code, + and are not intended to be called by an application using the email package. + A custom policy must implement all of these methods. + + .. method:: handle_defect(obj, defect) + + Handle a *defect* found on *obj*. When the email package calls this + method, *defect* will always be a subclass of + :class:`~email.errors.Defect`. + + The default implementation checks the :attr:`raise_on_defect` flag. If + it is ``True``, *defect* is raised as an exception. If it is ``False`` + (the default), *obj* and *defect* are passed to :meth:`register_defect`. + + .. method:: register_defect(obj, defect) + + Register a *defect* on *obj*. In the email package, *defect* will always + be a subclass of :class:`~email.errors.Defect`. + + The default implementation calls the ``append`` method of the ``defects`` + attribute of *obj*. When the email package calls :attr:`handle_defect`, + *obj* will normally have a ``defects`` attribute that has an ``append`` + method. Custom object types used with the email package (for example, + custom ``Message`` objects) should also provide such an attribute, + otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected errors. + + .. method:: header_max_count(name) + + Return the maximum allowed number of headers named *name*. + + Called when a header is added to a :class:`~email.message.Message` + object. If the returned value is not ``0`` or ``None``, and there are + already a number of headers with the name *name* equal to the value + returned, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised. + + Because the default behavior of ``Message.__setitem__`` is to append the + value to the list of headers, it is easy to create duplicate headers + without realizing it. This method allows certain headers to be limited + in the number of instances of that header that may be added to a + ``Message`` programmatically. (The limit is not observed by the parser, + which will faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message + being parsed.) + + The default implementation returns ``None`` for all header names. + + .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines) + + The email package calls this method with a list of strings, each string + ending with the line separation characters found in the source being + parsed. The first line includes the field header name and separator. + All whitespace in the source is preserved. The method should return the + ``(name, value)`` tuple that is to be stored in the ``Message`` to + represent the parsed header. + + If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing + email package policies, *name* should be the case preserved name (all + characters up to the '``:``' separator), while *value* should be the + unfolded value (all line separator characters removed, but whitespace + kept intact), stripped of leading whitespace. + + *sourcelines* may contain surrogateescaped binary data. + + There is no default implementation + + .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value) + + The email package calls this method with the name and value provided by + the application program when the application program is modifying a + ``Message`` programmatically (as opposed to a ``Message`` created by a + parser). The method should return the ``(name, value)`` tuple that is to + be stored in the ``Message`` to represent the header. + + If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the existing + email package policies, the *name* and *value* should be strings or + string subclasses that do not change the content of the passed in + arguments. + + There is no default implementation + + .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value) + + The email package calls this method with the *name* and *value* currently + stored in the ``Message`` when that header is requested by the + application program, and whatever the method returns is what is passed + back to the application as the value of the header being retrieved. + Note that there may be more than one header with the same name stored in + the ``Message``; the method is passed the specific name and value of the + header destined to be returned to the application. + + *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data. There should be no + surrogateescaped binary data in the value returned by the method. + + There is no default implementation + + .. method:: fold(name, value) + + The email package calls this method with the *name* and *value* currently + stored in the ``Message`` for a given header. The method should return a + string that represents that header "folded" correctly (according to the + policy settings) by composing the *name* with the *value* and inserting + :attr:`linesep` characters at the appropriate places. See :rfc:`5322` + for a discussion of the rules for folding email headers. + + *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data. There should be no + surrogateescaped binary data in the string returned by the method. + + .. method:: fold_binary(name, value) + + The same as :meth:`fold`, except that the returned value should be a + bytes object rather than a string. + + *value* may contain surrogateescaped binary data. These could be + converted back into binary data in the returned bytes object. + + +.. class:: Compat32(**kw) + + This concrete :class:`Policy` is the backward compatibility policy. It + replicates the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2. The + :mod:`policy` module also defines an instance of this class, + :const:`compat32`, that is used as the default policy. Thus the default + behavior of the email package is to maintain compatibility with Python 3.2. + + The class provides the following concrete implementations of the + abstract methods of :class:`Policy`: + + .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines) + + The name is parsed as everything up to the '``:``' and returned + unmodified. The value is determined by stripping leading whitespace off + the remainder of the first line, joining all subsequent lines together, + and stripping any trailing carriage return or linefeed characters. + + .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value) + + The name and value are returned unmodified. + + .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value) + + If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a + :class:`~email.header.Header` object using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset. + Otherwise it is returned unmodified. + + .. method:: fold(name, value) + + Headers are folded using the :class:`~email.header.Header` folding + algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps + each resulting line to the ``max_line_length``. Non-ASCII binary data are + CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset. + + .. method:: fold_binary(name, value) + + Headers are folded using the :class:`~email.header.Header` folding + algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value, and wraps + each resulting line to the ``max_line_length``. If ``cte_type`` is + ``7bit``, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit`` + charset. Otherwise the original source header is used, with its existing + line breaks and and any (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain. + + +.. note:: + + The documentation below describes new policies that are included in the + standard library on a :term:`provisional basis <provisional package>`. + Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the feature) + may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers. + + +.. class:: EmailPolicy(**kw) + + This concrete :class:`Policy` provides behavior that is intended to be fully + compliant with the current email RFCs. These include (but are not limited + to) :rfc:`5322`, :rfc:`2047`, and the current MIME RFCs. + + This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms. Instead of + simple strings, headers are custom objects with custom attributes depending + on the type of the field. The parsing and folding algorithm fully implement + :rfc:`2047` and :rfc:`5322`. + + In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to all + policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes: + + .. attribute:: refold_source + + If the value for a header in the ``Message`` object originated from a + :mod:`~email.parser` (as opposed to being set by a program), this + attribute indicates whether or not a generator should refold that value + when transforming the message back into stream form. The possible values + are: + + ======== =============================================================== + ``none`` all source values use original folding + + ``long`` source values that have any line that is longer than + ``max_line_length`` will be refolded + + ``all`` all values are refolded. + ======== =============================================================== + + The default is ``long``. + + .. attribute:: header_factory + + A callable that takes two arguments, ``name`` and ``value``, where + ``name`` is a header field name and ``value`` is an unfolded header field + value, and returns a string subclass that represents that header. A + default ``header_factory`` (see :mod:`~email.headerregistry`) is provided + that understands some of the :RFC:`5322` header field types. (Currently + address fields and date fields have special treatment, while all other + fields are treated as unstructured. This list will be completed before + the extension is marked stable.) + + The class provides the following concrete implementations of the abstract + methods of :class:`Policy`: + + .. method:: header_max_count(name) + + Returns the value of the + :attr:`~email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.max_count` attribute of the + specialized class used to represent the header with the given name. + + .. method:: header_source_parse(sourcelines) + + The implementation of this method is the same as that for the + :class:`Compat32` policy. + + .. method:: header_store_parse(name, value) + + The name is returned unchanged. If the input value has a ``name`` + attribute and it matches *name* ignoring case, the value is returned + unchanged. Otherwise the *name* and *value* are passed to + ``header_factory``, and the resulting custom header object is returned as + the value. In this case a ``ValueError`` is raised if the input value + contains CR or LF characters. + + .. method:: header_fetch_parse(name, value) + + If the value has a ``name`` attribute, it is returned to unmodified. + Otherwise the *name*, and the *value* with any CR or LF characters + removed, are passed to the ``header_factory``, and the resulting custom + header object is returned. Any surrogateescaped bytes get turned into + the unicode unknown-character glyph. + + .. method:: fold(name, value) + + Header folding is controlled by the :attr:`refold_source` policy setting. + A value is considered to be a 'source value' if and only if it does not + have a ``name`` attribute (having a ``name`` attribute means it is a + header object of some sort). If a source value needs to be refolded + according to the policy, it is converted into a custom header object by + passing the *name* and the *value* with any CR and LF characters removed + to the ``header_factory``. Folding of a custom header object is done by + calling its ``fold`` method with the current policy. + + Source values are split into lines using :meth:`~str.splitlines`. If + the value is not to be refolded, the lines are rejoined using the + ``linesep`` from the policy and returned. The exception is lines + containing non-ascii binary data. In that case the value is refolded + regardless of the ``refold_source`` setting, which causes the binary data + to be CTE encoded using the ``unknown-8bit`` charset. + + .. method:: fold_binary(name, value) + + The same as :meth:`fold` if :attr:`cte_type` is ``7bit``, except that + the returned value is bytes. + + If :attr:`cte_type` is ``8bit``, non-ASCII binary data is converted back + into bytes. Headers with binary data are not refolded, regardless of the + ``refold_header`` setting, since there is no way to know whether the + binary data consists of single byte characters or multibyte characters. + +The following instances of :class:`EmailPolicy` provide defaults suitable for +specific application domains. Note that in the future the behavior of these +instances (in particular the ``HTTP`` instance) may be adjusted to conform even +more closely to the RFCs relevant to their domains. + +.. data:: default + + An instance of ``EmailPolicy`` with all defaults unchanged. This policy + uses the standard Python ``\n`` line endings rather than the RFC-correct + ``\r\n``. + +.. data:: SMTP + + Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email RFCs. + Like ``default``, but with ``linesep`` set to ``\r\n``, which is RFC + compliant. + +.. data:: HTTP + + Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic. Like + ``SMTP`` except that ``max_line_length`` is set to ``None`` (unlimited). + +.. data:: strict + + Convenience instance. The same as ``default`` except that + ``raise_on_defect`` is set to ``True``. This allows any policy to be made + strict by writing:: + + somepolicy + policy.strict + +With all of these :class:`EmailPolicies <.EmailPolicy>`, the effective API of +the email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways: + + * Setting a header on a :class:`~email.message.Message` results in that + header being parsed and a custom header object created. + + * Fetching a header value from a :class:`~email.message.Message` results + in that header being parsed and a custom header object created and + returned. + + * Any custom header object, or any header that is refolded due to the + policy settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the + RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are required + and allowed. + +From the application view, this means that any header obtained through the +:class:`~email.message.Message` is a custom header object with custom +attributes, whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the +header. Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header +created, using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting +the unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form. + +The custom header objects and their attributes are described in +:mod:`~email.headerregistry`. diff --git a/Doc/library/email.rst b/Doc/library/email.rst index 4530b95..ef5354f 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.rst @@ -51,6 +51,8 @@ Contents of the :mod:`email` package documentation: email.message.rst email.parser.rst email.generator.rst + email.policy.rst + email.headerregistry.rst email.mime.rst email.header.rst email.charset.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/email.util.rst b/Doc/library/email.util.rst index 11bf3b2..bad0b24 100644 --- a/Doc/library/email.util.rst +++ b/Doc/library/email.util.rst @@ -29,13 +29,21 @@ There are several useful utilities provided in the :mod:`email.utils` module: fails, in which case a 2-tuple of ``('', '')`` is returned. -.. function:: formataddr(pair) +.. function:: formataddr(pair, charset='utf-8') The inverse of :meth:`parseaddr`, this takes a 2-tuple of the form ``(realname, email_address)`` and returns the string value suitable for a :mailheader:`To` or :mailheader:`Cc` header. If the first element of *pair* is false, then the second element is returned unmodified. + Optional *charset* is the character set that will be used in the :rfc:`2047` + encoding of the ``realname`` if the ``realname`` contains non-ASCII + characters. Can be an instance of :class:`str` or a + :class:`~email.charset.Charset`. Defaults to ``utf-8``. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *charset* option. + .. function:: getaddresses(fieldvalues) @@ -74,6 +82,20 @@ There are several useful utilities provided in the :mod:`email.utils` module: indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable. +.. function:: parsedate_to_datetime(date) + + The inverse of :func:`format_datetime`. Performs the same function as + :func:`parsedate`, but on success returns a :mod:`~datetime.datetime`. If + the input date has a timezone of ``-0000``, the ``datetime`` will be a naive + ``datetime``, and if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a + time in UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the + message the date comes from. If the input date has any other valid timezone + offset, the ``datetime`` will be an aware ``datetime`` with the + corresponding a :class:`~datetime.timezone` :class:`~datetime.tzinfo`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: mktime_tz(tuple) Turn a 10-tuple as returned by :func:`parsedate_tz` into a UTC timestamp. It @@ -105,6 +127,36 @@ There are several useful utilities provided in the :mod:`email.utils` module: ``False``. The default is ``False``. +.. function:: format_datetime(dt, usegmt=False) + + Like ``formatdate``, but the input is a :mod:`datetime` instance. If it is + a naive datetime, it is assumed to be "UTC with no information about the + source timezone", and the conventional ``-0000`` is used for the timezone. + If it is an aware ``datetime``, then the numeric timezone offset is used. + If it is an aware timezone with offset zero, then *usegmt* may be set to + ``True``, in which case the string ``GMT`` is used instead of the numeric + timezone offset. This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP + date headers. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: localtime(dt=None) + + Return local time as an aware datetime object. If called without + arguments, return current time. Otherwise *dt* argument should be a + :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance, and it is converted to the local time + zone according to the system time zone database. If *dt* is naive (that + is, ``dt.tzinfo`` is ``None``), it is assumed to be in local time. In this + case, a positive or zero value for *isdst* causes ``localtime`` to presume + initially that summer time (for example, Daylight Saving Time) is or is not + (respectively) in effect for the specified time. A negative value for + *isdst* causes the ``localtime`` to attempt to divine whether summer time + is in effect for the specified time. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: make_msgid(idstring=None, domain=None) Returns a string suitable for an :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant @@ -115,7 +167,8 @@ There are several useful utilities provided in the :mod:`email.utils` module: may be useful certain cases, such as a constructing distributed system that uses a consistent domain name across multiple hosts. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 domain keyword added + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + Added the *domain* keyword. .. function:: decode_rfc2231(s) diff --git a/Doc/library/exceptions.rst b/Doc/library/exceptions.rst index ca3ad3e..6ba58d4 100644 --- a/Doc/library/exceptions.rst +++ b/Doc/library/exceptions.rst @@ -34,6 +34,27 @@ programmers are encouraged to at least derive new exceptions from the defining exceptions is available in the Python Tutorial under :ref:`tut-userexceptions`. +When raising (or re-raising) an exception in an :keyword:`except` clause +:attr:`__context__` is automatically set to the last exception caught; if the +new exception is not handled the traceback that is eventually displayed will +include the originating exception(s) and the final exception. + +This implicit exception chain can be made explicit by using :keyword:`from` with +:keyword:`raise`. The single argument to :keyword:`from` must be an exception +or ``None``. It will be set as :attr:`__cause__` on the raised exception. +Setting :attr:`__cause__` implicitly sets the :attr:`__suppress_context__` to +``True``. If :attr:`__cause__` is an exception, it will be displayed. If +:attr:`__cause__` is present or :attr:`__suppress_context__` has a true value, +:attr:`__context__` will not be displayed. + +In either case, the default exception handling code will not display any of the +remaining links in the :attr:`__context__` chain if :attr:`__cause__` has been +set. + + +Base classes +------------ + The following exceptions are used mostly as base classes for other exceptions. .. exception:: BaseException @@ -90,27 +111,8 @@ The following exceptions are used mostly as base classes for other exceptions. can be raised directly by :func:`codecs.lookup`. -.. exception:: EnvironmentError - - The base class for exceptions that can occur outside the Python system: - :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`OSError`. When exceptions of this type are created with a - 2-tuple, the first item is available on the instance's :attr:`errno` attribute - (it is assumed to be an error number), and the second item is available on the - :attr:`strerror` attribute (it is usually the associated error message). The - tuple itself is also available on the :attr:`args` attribute. - - When an :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is instantiated with a 3-tuple, the - first two items are available as above, while the third item is available on the - :attr:`filename` attribute. However, for backwards compatibility, the - :attr:`args` attribute contains only a 2-tuple of the first two constructor - arguments. - - The :attr:`filename` attribute is ``None`` when this exception is created with - other than 3 arguments. The :attr:`errno` and :attr:`strerror` attributes are - also ``None`` when the instance was created with other than 2 or 3 arguments. - In this last case, :attr:`args` contains the verbatim constructor arguments as a - tuple. - +Concrete exceptions +------------------- The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised. @@ -151,21 +153,19 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised. it is technically not an error. -.. exception:: IOError - - Raised when an I/O operation (such as the built-in :func:`print` or - :func:`open` functions or a method of a :term:`file object`) fails for an - I/O-related reason, e.g., "file not found" or "disk full". - - This class is derived from :exc:`EnvironmentError`. See the discussion above - for more information on exception instance attributes. - - .. exception:: ImportError Raised when an :keyword:`import` statement fails to find the module definition or when a ``from ... import`` fails to find a name that is to be imported. + The :attr:`name` and :attr:`path` attributes can be set using keyword-only + arguments to the constructor. When set they represent the name of the module + that was attempted to be imported and the path to any file which triggered + the exception, respectively. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the :attr:`name` and :attr:`path` attributes. + .. exception:: IndexError @@ -221,17 +221,30 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised. .. index:: module: errno - This exception is derived from :exc:`EnvironmentError`. It is raised when a - function returns a system-related error (not for illegal argument types or - other incidental errors). The :attr:`errno` attribute is a numeric error - code from :c:data:`errno`, and the :attr:`strerror` attribute is the - corresponding string, as would be printed by the C function :c:func:`perror`. - See the module :mod:`errno`, which contains names for the error codes defined - by the underlying operating system. + This exception is raised when a system function returns a system-related + error, including I/O failures such as "file not found" or "disk full" + (not for illegal argument types or other incidental errors). Often a + subclass of :exc:`OSError` will actually be raised as described in + `OS exceptions`_ below. The :attr:`errno` attribute is a numeric error + code from the C variable :c:data:`errno`. + + Under Windows, the :attr:`winerror` attribute gives you the native + Windows error code. The :attr:`errno` attribute is then an approximate + translation, in POSIX terms, of that native error code. + + Under all platforms, the :attr:`strerror` attribute is the corresponding + error message as provided by the operating system (as formatted by the C + functions :c:func:`perror` under POSIX, and :c:func:`FormatMessage` + Windows). - For exceptions that involve a file system path (such as :func:`chdir` or - :func:`unlink`), the exception instance will contain a third attribute, - :attr:`filename`, which is the file name passed to the function. + For exceptions that involve a file system path (such as :func:`open` or + :func:`os.unlink`), the exception instance will contain an additional + attribute, :attr:`filename`, which is the file name passed to the function. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`EnvironmentError`, :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`WindowsError`, + :exc:`VMSError`, :exc:`socket.error`, :exc:`select.error` and + :exc:`mmap.error` have been merged into :exc:`OSError`. .. exception:: OverflowError @@ -262,8 +275,20 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised. .. exception:: StopIteration Raised by built-in function :func:`next` and an :term:`iterator`\'s - :meth:`__next__` method to signal that there are no further values. + :meth:`__next__` method to signal that there are no further items to be + produced by the iterator. + + The exception object has a single attribute :attr:`value`, which is + given as an argument when constructing the exception, and defaults + to :const:`None`. + + When a generator function returns, a new :exc:`StopIteration` instance is + raised, and the value returned by the function is used as the + :attr:`value` parameter to the constructor of the exception. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added ``value`` attribute and the ability for generator functions to + use it to return a value. .. exception:: SyntaxError @@ -372,27 +397,141 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised. more precise exception such as :exc:`IndexError`. -.. exception:: VMSError +.. exception:: ZeroDivisionError - Only available on VMS. Raised when a VMS-specific error occurs. + Raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation is zero. The + associated value is a string indicating the type of the operands and the + operation. +The following exceptions are kept for compatibility with previous versions; +starting from Python 3.3, they are aliases of :exc:`OSError`. + +.. exception:: EnvironmentError + +.. exception:: IOError + +.. exception:: VMSError + + Only available on VMS. + .. exception:: WindowsError - Raised when a Windows-specific error occurs or when the error number does not - correspond to an :c:data:`errno` value. The :attr:`winerror` and - :attr:`strerror` values are created from the return values of the - :c:func:`GetLastError` and :c:func:`FormatMessage` functions from the Windows - Platform API. The :attr:`errno` value maps the :attr:`winerror` value to - corresponding ``errno.h`` values. This is a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. + Only available on Windows. -.. exception:: ZeroDivisionError +OS exceptions +^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The following exceptions are subclasses of :exc:`OSError`, they get raised +depending on the system error code. + +.. exception:: BlockingIOError + + Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g. socket) set + for non-blocking operation. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EAGAIN``, ``EALREADY``, + ``EWOULDBLOCK`` and ``EINPROGRESS``. + + In addition to those of :exc:`OSError`, :exc:`BlockingIOError` can have + one more attribute: + + .. attribute:: characters_written + + An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream + before it blocked. This attribute is available when using the + buffered I/O classes from the :mod:`io` module. + +.. exception:: ChildProcessError + + Raised when an operation on a child process failed. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECHILD``. + +.. exception:: ConnectionError + + A base class for connection-related issues. Subclasses are + :exc:`BrokenPipeError`, :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError`, + :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError` and :exc:`ConnectionResetError`. + + .. exception:: BrokenPipeError + + A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when trying to write on a + pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to write on a socket + which has been shutdown for writing. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EPIPE`` and ``ESHUTDOWN``. + + .. exception:: ConnectionAbortedError + + A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection attempt + is aborted by the peer. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNABORTED``. + + .. exception:: ConnectionRefusedError + + A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection attempt + is refused by the peer. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNREFUSED``. + + .. exception:: ConnectionResetError + + A subclass of :exc:`ConnectionError`, raised when a connection is + reset by the peer. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ECONNRESET``. + +.. exception:: FileExistsError + + Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already exists. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EEXIST``. + +.. exception:: FileNotFoundError + + Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn't exist. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ENOENT``. + +.. exception:: InterruptedError + + Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EEINTR``. + +.. exception:: IsADirectoryError + + Raised when a file operation (such as :func:`os.remove`) is requested + on a directory. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EISDIR``. + +.. exception:: NotADirectoryError + + Raised when a directory operation (such as :func:`os.listdir`) is requested + on something which is not a directory. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ENOTDIR``. + +.. exception:: PermissionError + + Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access + rights - for example filesystem permissions. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``EACCES`` and ``EPERM``. + +.. exception:: ProcessLookupError + + Raised when a given process doesn't exist. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ESRCH``. + +.. exception:: TimeoutError + + Raised when a system function timed out at the system level. + Corresponds to :c:data:`errno` ``ETIMEDOUT``. + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + All the above :exc:`OSError` subclasses were added. + + +.. seealso:: + + :pep:`3151` - Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy - Raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation is zero. The - associated value is a string indicating the type of the operands and the - operation. +Warnings +-------- The following exceptions are used as warning categories; see the :mod:`warnings` module for more information. diff --git a/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst b/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b079b30 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +:mod:`faulthandler` --- Dump the Python traceback +================================================= + +.. module:: faulthandler + :synopsis: Dump the Python traceback. + +This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, +after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call :func:`faulthandler.enable` to +install fault handlers for the :const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`, +:const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS`, and :const:`SIGILL` signals. You can also +enable them at startup by setting the :envvar:`PYTHONFAULTHANDLER` environment +variable or by using :option:`-X` ``faulthandler`` command line option. + +The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport or the +Windows fault handler. The module uses an alternative stack for signal handlers +if the :c:func:`sigaltstack` function is available. This allows it to dump the +traceback even on a stack overflow. + +The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only use +signal-safe functions (e.g. it cannot allocate memory on the heap). Because of +this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to normal Python +tracebacks: + +* Only ASCII is supported. The ``backslashreplace`` error handler is used on + encoding. +* Each string is limited to 500 characters. +* Only the filename, the function name and the line number are + displayed. (no source code) +* It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads. + +By default, the Python traceback is written to :data:`sys.stderr`. To see +tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal. A log file can +alternatively be passed to :func:`faulthandler.enable`. + +The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash or when +Python is deadlocked. + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +Dump the traceback +------------------ + +.. function:: dump_traceback(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True) + + Dump the tracebacks of all threads into *file*. If *all_threads* is + ``False``, dump only the current thread. + + +Fault handler state +------------------- + +.. function:: enable(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True) + + Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the :const:`SIGSEGV`, + :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS` and :const:`SIGILL` + signals to dump the Python traceback. If *all_threads* is ``True``, + produce tracebacks for every running thread. Otherwise, dump only the current + thread. + +.. function:: disable() + + Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed by + :func:`enable`. + +.. function:: is_enabled() + + Check if the fault handler is enabled. + + +Dump the tracebacks after a timeout +----------------------------------- + +.. function:: dump_tracebacks_later(timeout, repeat=False, file=sys.stderr, exit=False) + + Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of *timeout* seconds, or + every *timeout* seconds if *repeat* is ``True``. If *exit* is ``True``, call + :c:func:`_exit` with status=1 after dumping the tracebacks. (Note + :c:func:`_exit` exits the process immediately, which means it doesn't do any + cleanup like flushing file buffers.) If the function is called twice, the new + call replaces previous parameters and resets the timeout. The timer has a + sub-second resolution. + + This function is implemented using a watchdog thread and therefore is not + available if Python is compiled with threads disabled. + +.. function:: cancel_dump_tracebacks_later() + + Cancel the last call to :func:`dump_tracebacks_later`. + + +Dump the traceback on a user signal +----------------------------------- + +.. function:: register(signum, file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True, chain=False) + + Register a user signal: install a handler for the *signum* signal to dump + the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if *all_threads* is + ``False``, into *file*. Call the previous handler if chain is ``True``. + + Not available on Windows. + +.. function:: unregister(signum) + + Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the *signum* signal + installed by :func:`register`. Return ``True`` if the signal was registered, + ``False`` otherwise. + + Not available on Windows. + + +File descriptor issue +--------------------- + +:func:`enable`, :func:`dump_tracebacks_later` and :func:`register` keep the +file descriptor of their *file* argument. If the file is closed and its file +descriptor is reused by a new file, or if :func:`os.dup2` is used to replace +the file descriptor, the traceback will be written into a different file. Call +these functions again each time that the file is replaced. + + +Example +------- + +Example of a segmentation fault on Linux: :: + + $ python -q -X faulthandler + >>> import ctypes + >>> ctypes.string_at(0) + Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault + + Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700: + File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at + File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module> + Segmentation fault + diff --git a/Doc/library/fcntl.rst b/Doc/library/fcntl.rst index 6192400..9a9cdc1 100644 --- a/Doc/library/fcntl.rst +++ b/Doc/library/fcntl.rst @@ -19,6 +19,11 @@ argument. This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by ``sys.stdin.fileno()``, or a :class:`io.IOBase` object, such as ``sys.stdin`` itself, which provides a :meth:`fileno` that returns a genuine file descriptor. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Operations in this module used to raise a :exc:`IOError` where they now + raise a :exc:`OSError`. + + The module defines the following functions: @@ -40,7 +45,7 @@ The module defines the following functions: larger than 1024 bytes, this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption. - If the :c:func:`fcntl` fails, an :exc:`IOError` is raised. + If the :c:func:`fcntl` fails, an :exc:`OSError` is raised. .. function:: ioctl(fd, op[, arg[, mutate_flag]]) @@ -107,7 +112,7 @@ The module defines the following functions: When *operation* is :const:`LOCK_SH` or :const:`LOCK_EX`, it can also be bitwise ORed with :const:`LOCK_NB` to avoid blocking on lock acquisition. If :const:`LOCK_NB` is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an - :exc:`IOError` will be raised and the exception will have an *errno* + :exc:`OSError` will be raised and the exception will have an *errno* attribute set to :const:`EACCES` or :const:`EAGAIN` (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both values). On at least some systems, :const:`LOCK_EX` can only be used if the file descriptor refers to a diff --git a/Doc/library/filecmp.rst b/Doc/library/filecmp.rst index de20fb1..add68a3 100644 --- a/Doc/library/filecmp.rst +++ b/Doc/library/filecmp.rst @@ -21,11 +21,8 @@ The :mod:`filecmp` module defines the following functions: Compare the files named *f1* and *f2*, returning ``True`` if they seem equal, ``False`` otherwise. - Unless *shallow* is given and is false, files with identical :func:`os.stat` - signatures are taken to be equal. - - Files that were compared using this function will not be compared again unless - their :func:`os.stat` signature changes. + If *shallow* is true, files with identical :func:`os.stat` signatures are + taken to be equal. Otherwise, the contents of the files are compared. Note that no external programs are called from this function, giving it portability and efficiency. @@ -51,23 +48,11 @@ The :mod:`filecmp` module defines the following functions: one of the three returned lists. -Example:: - - >>> import filecmp - >>> filecmp.cmp('undoc.rst', 'undoc.rst') - True - >>> filecmp.cmp('undoc.rst', 'index.rst') - False - - .. _dircmp-objects: The :class:`dircmp` class ------------------------- -:class:`dircmp` instances are built using this constructor: - - .. class:: dircmp(a, b, ignore=None, hide=None) Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the directories *a* and @@ -83,7 +68,7 @@ The :class:`dircmp` class .. method:: report() - Print (to ``sys.stdout``) a comparison between *a* and *b*. + Print (to :data:`sys.stdout`) a comparison between *a* and *b*. .. method:: report_partial_closure() diff --git a/Doc/library/fileinput.rst b/Doc/library/fileinput.rst index ac44311..f8ec436 100644 --- a/Doc/library/fileinput.rst +++ b/Doc/library/fileinput.rst @@ -28,7 +28,10 @@ as the first argument to :func:`.input`. A single file name is also allowed. All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this by specifying the *mode* parameter in the call to :func:`.input` or :class:`FileInput`. If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading a file, -:exc:`IOError` is raised. +:exc:`OSError` is raised. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised; it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`. If ``sys.stdin`` is used more than once, the second and further use will return no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been explicitly reset @@ -168,10 +171,6 @@ and the backup file remains around; by default, the extension is ``'.bak'`` and it is deleted when the output file is closed. In-place filtering is disabled when standard input is read. -.. note:: - - The current implementation does not work for MS-DOS 8+3 filesystems. - The two following opening hooks are provided by this module: diff --git a/Doc/library/ftplib.rst b/Doc/library/ftplib.rst index 5bbef4f..3cc295a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ftplib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ftplib.rst @@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ Here's a sample session using the :mod:`ftplib` module:: The module defines the following items: -.. class:: FTP(host='', user='', passwd='', acct=''[, timeout]) +.. class:: FTP(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', timeout=None, source_address=None) Return a new instance of the :class:`FTP` class. When *host* is given, the method call ``connect(host)`` is made. When *user* is given, additionally @@ -48,7 +48,8 @@ The module defines the following items: *acct* default to the empty string when not given). The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if is not specified, the global default timeout setting - will be used). + will be used). *source_address* is a 2-tuple ``(host, port)`` for the socket + to bind to as its source address before connecting. :class:`FTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement. Here is a sample on how using it: @@ -68,8 +69,11 @@ The module defines the following items: .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *source_address* parameter was added. -.. class:: FTP_TLS(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', [keyfile[, certfile[, context[, timeout]]]]) + +.. class:: FTP_TLS(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', keyfile=None, certfile=None, context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None) A :class:`FTP` subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as described in :rfc:`4217`. @@ -80,10 +84,15 @@ The module defines the following items: private key and certificate chain file name for the SSL connection. *context* parameter is a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a - single (potentially long-lived) structure. + single (potentially long-lived) structure. *source_address* is a 2-tuple + ``(host, port)`` for the socket to bind to as its source address before + connecting. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *source_address* parameter was added. + Here's a sample session using the :class:`FTP_TLS` class: >>> from ftplib import FTP_TLS @@ -135,8 +144,7 @@ The module defines the following items: The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of :class:`FTP` instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP connection (as opposed to programming errors made by the caller). This set includes the - four exceptions listed above as well as :exc:`socket.error` and - :exc:`IOError`. + four exceptions listed above as well as :exc:`OSError`. .. seealso:: @@ -174,7 +182,7 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection. -.. method:: FTP.connect(host='', port=0[, timeout]) +.. method:: FTP.connect(host='', port=0, timeout=None, source_address=None) Connect to the given host and port. The default port number is ``21``, as specified by the FTP protocol specification. It is rarely needed to specify a @@ -182,10 +190,14 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. instance; it should not be called at all if a host was given when the instance was created. All other methods can only be used after a connection has been made. - The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt. If no *timeout* is passed, the global default timeout setting will be used. + *source_address* is a 2-tuple ``(host, port)`` for the socket to bind to as + its source address before connecting. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *source_address* parameter was added. .. method:: FTP.getwelcome() @@ -241,13 +253,12 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. Retrieve a file or directory listing in ASCII transfer mode. *cmd* should be an appropriate ``RETR`` command (see :meth:`retrbinary`) or a command such as - ``LIST``, ``NLST`` or ``MLSD`` (usually just the string ``'LIST'``). + ``LIST`` or ``NLST`` (usually just the string ``'LIST'``). ``LIST`` retrieves a list of files and information about those files. - ``NLST`` retrieves a list of file names. On some servers, ``MLSD`` retrieves - a machine readable list of files and information about those files. The - *callback* function is called for each line with a string argument containing - the line with the trailing CRLF stripped. The default *callback* prints the - line to ``sys.stdout``. + ``NLST`` retrieves a list of file names. + The *callback* function is called for each line with a string argument + containing the line with the trailing CRLF stripped. The default *callback* + prints the line to ``sys.stdout``. .. method:: FTP.set_pasv(boolean) @@ -307,6 +318,20 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. in :meth:`transfercmd`. +.. method:: FTP.mlsd(path="", facts=[]) + + List a directory in a standardized format by using MLSD command + (:rfc:`3659`). If *path* is omitted the current directory is assumed. + *facts* is a list of strings representing the type of information desired + (e.g. ``["type", "size", "perm"]``). Return a generator object yielding a + tuple of two elements for every file found in path. First element is the + file name, the second one is a dictionary containing facts about the file + name. Content of this dictionary might be limited by the *facts* argument + but server is not guaranteed to return all requested facts. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: FTP.nlst(argument[, ...]) Return a list of file names as returned by the ``NLST`` command. The @@ -314,6 +339,8 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. directory). Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to the ``NLST`` command. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 use :meth:`mlsd` instead. + .. method:: FTP.dir(argument[, ...]) @@ -324,6 +351,8 @@ followed by ``lines`` for the text version or ``binary`` for the binary version. as a *callback* function as for :meth:`retrlines`; the default prints to ``sys.stdout``. This method returns ``None``. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 use :meth:`mlsd` instead. + .. method:: FTP.rename(fromname, toname) @@ -396,6 +425,14 @@ FTP_TLS Objects Set up secure control connection by using TLS or SSL, depending on what specified in :meth:`ssl_version` attribute. +.. method:: FTP_TLS.ccc() + + Revert control channel back to plaintext. This can be useful to take + advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP + without opening fixed ports. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. method:: FTP_TLS.prot_p() Set up secure data connection. diff --git a/Doc/library/functions.rst b/Doc/library/functions.rst index be5d4c7..6156c5d 100644 --- a/Doc/library/functions.rst +++ b/Doc/library/functions.rst @@ -17,9 +17,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. :func:`bin` :func:`eval` :func:`int` :func:`open` :func:`str` :func:`bool` :func:`exec` :func:`isinstance` :func:`ord` :func:`sum` :func:`bytearray` :func:`filter` :func:`issubclass` :func:`pow` :func:`super` -:func:`bytes` :func:`float` :func:`iter` :func:`print` :func:`tuple` +:func:`bytes` :func:`float` :func:`iter` :func:`print` |func-tuple|_ :func:`callable` :func:`format` :func:`len` :func:`property` :func:`type` -:func:`chr` |func-frozenset|_ :func:`list` :func:`range` :func:`vars` +:func:`chr` |func-frozenset|_ |func-list|_ |func-range|_ :func:`vars` :func:`classmethod` :func:`getattr` :func:`locals` :func:`repr` :func:`zip` :func:`compile` :func:`globals` :func:`map` :func:`reversed` :func:`__import__` :func:`complex` :func:`hasattr` :func:`max` :func:`round` @@ -33,6 +33,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. .. |func-frozenset| replace:: ``frozenset()`` .. |func-memoryview| replace:: ``memoryview()`` .. |func-set| replace:: ``set()`` +.. |func-list| replace:: ``list()`` +.. |func-tuple| replace:: ``tuple()`` +.. |func-range| replace:: ``range()`` .. function:: abs(x) @@ -93,6 +96,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. .. index:: pair: Boolean; type +.. _func-bytearray: .. function:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]]) Return a new array of bytes. The :class:`bytearray` type is a mutable @@ -119,6 +123,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created. +.. _func-bytes: .. function:: bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]]) Return a new "bytes" object, which is an immutable sequence of integers in @@ -152,10 +157,6 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in base 16). :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range. - Note that on narrow Unicode builds, the result is a string of - length two for *i* greater than 65,535 (0xFFFF in hexadecimal). - - .. function:: classmethod(function) @@ -309,17 +310,18 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. >>> import struct >>> dir() # show the names in the module namespace - ['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'struct'] - >>> dir(struct) # show the names in the struct module - ['Struct', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__name__', - '__package__', '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into', + ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct'] + >>> dir(struct) # show the names in the struct module # doctest: +SKIP + ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', + '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', + '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into', 'unpack', 'unpack_from'] >>> class Shape(object): - def __dir__(self): - return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location'] + ... def __dir__(self): + ... return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location'] >>> s = Shape() >>> dir(s) - ['area', 'perimeter', 'location'] + ['area', 'location', 'perimeter'] .. note:: @@ -618,9 +620,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read, :exc:`EOFError` is raised. Example:: - >>> s = input('--> ') + >>> s = input('--> ') # doctest: +SKIP --> Monty Python's Flying Circus - >>> s + >>> s # doctest: +SKIP "Monty Python's Flying Circus" If the :mod:`readline` module was loaded, then :func:`input` will use it @@ -695,16 +697,12 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. sequence (string, tuple or list) or a mapping (dictionary). +.. _func-list: .. function:: list([iterable]) + :noindex: - Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s - items. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container that supports - iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* is already a list, a copy is - made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``. For instance, ``list('abc')`` - returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``. - If no argument is given, returns a new empty list, ``[]``. - - :class:`list` is a mutable sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. + Rather than being a function, :class:`list` is actually a mutable + sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. .. function:: locals() @@ -803,10 +801,10 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. .. index:: single: file object; open() built-in function -.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True) +.. function:: open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None) Open *file* and return a corresponding :term:`file object`. If the file - cannot be opened, an :exc:`IOError` is raised. + cannot be opened, an :exc:`OSError` is raised. *file* is either a string or bytes object giving the pathname (absolute or relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or @@ -817,17 +815,20 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. *mode* is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is opened. It defaults to ``'r'`` which means open for reading in text mode. Other common values are ``'w'`` for writing (truncating the file if it - already exists), and ``'a'`` for appending (which on *some* Unix systems, - means that *all* writes append to the end of the file regardless of the - current seek position). In text mode, if *encoding* is not specified the - encoding used is platform dependent. (For reading and writing raw bytes use - binary mode and leave *encoding* unspecified.) The available modes are: + already exists), ``'x'`` for exclusive creation and ``'a'`` for appending + (which on *some* Unix systems, means that *all* writes append to the end of + the file regardless of the current seek position). In text mode, if + *encoding* is not specified the encoding used is platform dependent: + ``locale.getpreferredencoding(False)`` is called to get the current locale + encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave + *encoding* unspecified.) The available modes are: ========= =============================================================== Character Meaning --------- --------------------------------------------------------------- ``'r'`` open for reading (default) ``'w'`` open for writing, truncating the file first + ``'x'`` open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists ``'a'`` open for writing, appending to the end of the file if it exists ``'b'`` binary mode ``'t'`` text mode (default) @@ -913,6 +914,16 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. closed. If a filename is given *closefd* has no effect and must be ``True`` (the default). + A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying + file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with + (*file*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing + :mod:`os.open` as *opener* results in functionality similar to passing + ``None``). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *opener* parameter was added. + The ``'x'`` mode was added. + The type of :term:`file object` returned by the :func:`open` function depends on the mode. When :func:`open` is used to open a file in a text mode (``'w'``, ``'r'``, ``'wt'``, ``'rt'``, etc.), it returns a subclass of @@ -938,6 +949,11 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. (where :func:`open` is declared), :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`, and :mod:`shutil`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised, it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`. + :exc:`FileExistsError` is now raised if the file opened in exclusive + creation mode (``'x'``) already exists. + .. XXX works for bytes too, but should it? .. function:: ord(c) @@ -947,9 +963,6 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. point of that character. For example, ``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97`` and ``ord('\u2020')`` returns ``8224``. This is the inverse of :func:`chr`. - On wide Unicode builds, if the argument length is not one, a - :exc:`TypeError` will be raised. On narrow Unicode builds, strings - of length two are accepted when they form a UTF-16 surrogate pair. .. function:: pow(x, y[, z]) @@ -967,7 +980,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. must be of integer types, and *y* must be non-negative. -.. function:: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout) +.. function:: print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False) Print *objects* to the stream *file*, separated by *sep* and followed by *end*. *sep*, *end* and *file*, if present, must be given as keyword @@ -980,9 +993,12 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. *end*. The *file* argument must be an object with a ``write(string)`` method; if it - is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used. Output buffering - is determined by *file*. Use ``file.flush()`` to ensure, for instance, - immediate appearance on a screen. + is not present or ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` will be used. Whether output + is buffered is usually determined by *file*, but if the *flush* keyword + argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *flush* keyword argument. .. function:: property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) @@ -1054,63 +1070,13 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. ``fdel`` corresponding to the constructor arguments. -.. XXX does accept objects with __index__ too +.. _func-range: .. function:: range(stop) range(start, stop[, step]) + :noindex: - This is a versatile function to create iterables yielding arithmetic - progressions. It is most often used in :keyword:`for` loops. The arguments - must be integers. If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``. - If the *start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``. The full form - returns an iterable of integers ``[start, start + step, start + 2 * step, - ...]``. If *step* is positive, the last element is the largest ``start + i * - step`` less than *stop*; if *step* is negative, the last element is the - smallest ``start + i * step`` greater than *stop*. *step* must not be zero - (or else :exc:`ValueError` is raised). Example: - - >>> list(range(10)) - [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] - >>> list(range(1, 11)) - [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] - >>> list(range(0, 30, 5)) - [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25] - >>> list(range(0, 10, 3)) - [0, 3, 6, 9] - >>> list(range(0, -10, -1)) - [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9] - >>> list(range(0)) - [] - >>> list(range(1, 0)) - [] - - Range objects implement the :class:`collections.Sequence` ABC, and provide - features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and - support for negative indices (see :ref:`typesseq`): - - >>> r = range(0, 20, 2) - >>> r - range(0, 20, 2) - >>> 11 in r - False - >>> 10 in r - True - >>> r.index(10) - 5 - >>> r[5] - 10 - >>> r[:5] - range(0, 10, 2) - >>> r[-1] - 18 - - Ranges containing absolute values larger than :data:`sys.maxsize` are permitted - but some features (such as :func:`len`) will raise :exc:`OverflowError`. - - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 - Implement the Sequence ABC. - Support slicing and negative indices. - Test integers for membership in constant time instead of iterating - through all items. + Rather than being a function, :class:`range` is actually an immutable + sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. .. function:: repr(object) @@ -1231,6 +1197,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. standard type hierarchy in :ref:`types`. +.. _func-str: .. function:: str([object[, encoding[, errors]]]) Return a string version of an object, using one of the following modes: @@ -1320,26 +1287,24 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. Accordingly, :func:`super` is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or operators such as ``super()[name]``. - Also note that :func:`super` is not limited to use inside methods. The two - argument form specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate - references. The zero argument form automatically searches the stack frame - for the class (``__class__``) and the first argument. + Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, :func:`super` is not + limited to use inside methods. The two argument form specifies the + arguments exactly and makes the appropriate references. The zero + argument form only works inside a class definition, as the compiler fills + in the necessary details to correctly retrieve the class being defined, + as well as accessing the current instance for ordinary methods. For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using :func:`super`, see `guide to using super() <http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_. +.. _func-tuple: .. function:: tuple([iterable]) + :noindex: - Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as *iterable*'s - items. *iterable* may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an - iterator object. If *iterable* is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. - For instance, ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and ``tuple([1, 2, - 3])`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``. If no argument is given, returns a new empty - tuple, ``()``. - - :class:`tuple` is an immutable sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. + Rather than being a function, :class:`tuple` is actually an immutable + sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq`. .. function:: type(object) @@ -1428,7 +1393,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. True -.. function:: __import__(name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=[], level=-1) +.. function:: __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0) .. index:: statement: import @@ -1443,8 +1408,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. replaced (by importing the :mod:`builtins` module and assigning to ``builtins.__import__``) in order to change semantics of the :keyword:`import` statement, but nowadays it is usually simpler to use import - hooks (see :pep:`302`). Direct use of :func:`__import__` is rare, except in - cases where you want to import a module whose name is only known at runtime. + hooks (see :pep:`302`) to attain the same goals. Direct use of + :func:`__import__` is entirely discouraged in favor of + :func:`importlib.import_module`. The function imports the module *name*, potentially using the given *globals* and *locals* to determine how to interpret the name in a package context. @@ -1453,13 +1419,11 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. not use its *locals* argument at all, and uses its *globals* only to determine the package context of the :keyword:`import` statement. - *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. ``0`` - means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for *level* indicate the - number of parent directories to search relative to the directory of the - module calling :func:`__import__`. Negative values attempt both an implicit - relative import and an absolute import (usage of negative values for *level* - are strongly discouraged as future versions of Python do not support such - values). Import statements only use values of 0 or greater. + *level* specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. ``0`` (the + default) means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for + *level* indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the + directory of the module calling :func:`__import__` (see :pep:`328` for the + details). When the *name* variable is of the form ``package.module``, normally, the top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, *not* the @@ -1492,6 +1456,10 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order. If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name, use :func:`importlib.import_module`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Negative values for *level* are no longer supported (which also changes + the default value to 0). + .. rubric:: Footnotes diff --git a/Doc/library/functools.rst b/Doc/library/functools.rst index 04743d3..f5c6608 100644 --- a/Doc/library/functools.rst +++ b/Doc/library/functools.rst @@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions: .. versionadded:: 3.2 -.. decorator:: lru_cache(maxsize=100) +.. decorator:: lru_cache(maxsize=128, typed=False) Decorator to wrap a function with a memoizing callable that saves up to the *maxsize* most recent calls. It can save time when an expensive or I/O bound @@ -49,8 +49,13 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions: Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and keyword arguments to the function must be hashable. - If *maxsize* is set to None, the LRU feature is disabled and the cache - can grow without bound. + If *maxsize* is set to None, the LRU feature is disabled and the cache can + grow without bound. The LRU feature performs best when *maxsize* is a + power-of-two. + + If *typed* is set to True, function arguments of different types will be + cached separately. For example, ``f(3)`` and ``f(3.0)`` will be treated + as distinct calls with distinct results. To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the *maxsize* parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a :func:`cache_info` @@ -67,8 +72,8 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions: An `LRU (least recently used) cache <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_algorithms#Least_Recently_Used>`_ works - best when more recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for - example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change daily). + best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for + example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change each day). The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not grow without bound on long-running processes such as web servers. @@ -111,6 +116,9 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions: .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *typed* option. + .. decorator:: total_ordering Given a class defining one or more rich comparison ordering methods, this diff --git a/Doc/library/gc.rst b/Doc/library/gc.rst index 0281bb7..3d76411 100644 --- a/Doc/library/gc.rst +++ b/Doc/library/gc.rst @@ -153,8 +153,8 @@ The :mod:`gc` module provides the following functions: .. versionadded:: 3.1 -The following variable is provided for read-only access (you can mutate its -value but should not rebind it): +The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can mutate the +values but should not rebind them): .. data:: garbage @@ -183,6 +183,41 @@ value but should not rebind it): :const:`DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE` is set, in addition all uncollectable objects are printed. +.. data:: callbacks + + A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector before and + after collection. The callbacks will be called with two arguments, + *phase* and *info*. + + *phase* can one of two values: + + "start": The garbage collection is about to start. + + "stop": The garbage collection has finished. + + *info* provides more information for the callback. The following + keys are currently defined: + + "generation": The oldest generation being collected. + + "collected": When *phase* is "stop", the number of objects + successfully collected. + + "uncollectable": when *phase* is "stop", the number of objects + that could not be collected and were put in :data:`garbage`. + + Applications can add their own callbacks to this list. The primary + use cases are: + + Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how often + various generations are collected, and how long the collection + takes. + + Allowing applications to identify and clear their own uncollectable + types when they appear in :data:`garbage`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The following constants are provided for use with :func:`set_debug`: diff --git a/Doc/library/gettext.rst b/Doc/library/gettext.rst index 0fa022c..825311b 100644 --- a/Doc/library/gettext.rst +++ b/Doc/library/gettext.rst @@ -185,10 +185,13 @@ class can also install themselves in the built-in namespace as the function translation object from the cache; the actual instance data is still shared with the cache. - If no :file:`.mo` file is found, this function raises :exc:`IOError` if + If no :file:`.mo` file is found, this function raises :exc:`OSError` if *fallback* is false (which is the default), and returns a :class:`NullTranslations` instance if *fallback* is true. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`. + .. function:: install(domain, localedir=None, codeset=None, names=None) @@ -342,7 +345,7 @@ The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set as the If the :file:`.mo` file's magic number is invalid, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a :class:`GNUTranslations` class can raise -:exc:`IOError`. +:exc:`OSError`. The following methods are overridden from the base class implementation: diff --git a/Doc/library/gzip.rst b/Doc/library/gzip.rst index 9422ea9..50d0462 100644 --- a/Doc/library/gzip.rst +++ b/Doc/library/gzip.rst @@ -13,9 +13,11 @@ like the GNU programs :program:`gzip` and :program:`gunzip` would. The data compression is provided by the :mod:`zlib` module. -The :mod:`gzip` module provides the :class:`GzipFile` class. The :class:`GzipFile` -class reads and writes :program:`gzip`\ -format files, automatically compressing -or decompressing the data so that it looks like an ordinary :term:`file object`. +The :mod:`gzip` module provides the :class:`GzipFile` class, as well as the +:func:`.open`, :func:`compress` and :func:`decompress` convenience functions. +The :class:`GzipFile` class reads and writes :program:`gzip`\ -format files, +automatically compressing or decompressing the data so that it looks like an +ordinary :term:`file object`. Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the :program:`gzip` and :program:`gunzip` programs, such as those produced by @@ -24,6 +26,34 @@ Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the The module defines the following items: +.. function:: open(filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None) + + Open a gzip-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file + object`. + + The *filename* argument can be an actual filename (a :class:`str` or + :class:`bytes` object), or an existing file object to read from or write to. + + The *mode* argument can be any of ``'r'``, ``'rb'``, ``'a'``, ``'ab'``, + ``'w'``, or ``'wb'`` for binary mode, or ``'rt'``, ``'at'``, or ``'wt'`` for + text mode. The default is ``'rb'``. + + The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the + :class:`GzipFile` constructor. + + For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`GzipFile` + constructor: ``GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel)``. In this case, the + *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be provided. + + For text mode, a :class:`GzipFile` object is created, and wrapped in an + :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error + handling behavior, and line ending(s). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added support for *filename* being a file object, support for text mode, + and the *encoding*, *errors* and *newline* arguments. + + .. class:: GzipFile(filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9, fileobj=None, mtime=None) Constructor for the :class:`GzipFile` class, which simulates most of the @@ -46,9 +76,9 @@ The module defines the following items: or ``'wb'``, depending on whether the file will be read or written. The default is the mode of *fileobj* if discernible; otherwise, the default is ``'rb'``. - Note that the file is always opened in binary mode; text mode is not - supported. If you need to read a compressed file in text mode, wrap your - :class:`GzipFile` with an :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`. + Note that the file is always opened in binary mode. To open a compressed file + in text mode, use :func:`.open` (or wrap your :class:`GzipFile` with an + :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`). The *compresslevel* argument is an integer from ``1`` to ``9`` controlling the level of compression; ``1`` is fastest and produces the least compression, and @@ -71,7 +101,7 @@ The module defines the following items: :class:`GzipFile` supports the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` interface, including iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement. Only the - :meth:`read1` and :meth:`truncate` methods aren't implemented. + :meth:`truncate` method isn't implemented. :class:`GzipFile` also provides the following method: @@ -93,12 +123,9 @@ The module defines the following items: .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Support for unseekable files was added. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The :meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.read1` method is now implemented. -.. function:: open(filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9) - - This is a shorthand for ``GzipFile(filename,`` ``mode,`` ``compresslevel)``. - The *filename* argument is required; *mode* defaults to ``'rb'`` and - *compresslevel* defaults to ``9``. .. function:: compress(data, compresslevel=9) diff --git a/Doc/library/hmac.rst b/Doc/library/hmac.rst index eff2724..0706ff4 100644 --- a/Doc/library/hmac.rst +++ b/Doc/library/hmac.rst @@ -38,6 +38,13 @@ An HMAC object has the following methods: given to the constructor. It may contain non-ASCII bytes, including NUL bytes. + .. warning:: + + When comparing the output of :meth:`digest` to an externally-supplied + digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the + :func:`compare_digest` function instead of the ``==`` operator + to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks. + .. method:: HMAC.hexdigest() @@ -45,6 +52,13 @@ An HMAC object has the following methods: length containing only hexadecimal digits. This may be used to exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary environments. + .. warning:: + + When comparing the output of :meth:`hexdigest` to an externally-supplied + digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the + :func:`compare_digest` function instead of the ``==`` operator + to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks. + .. method:: HMAC.copy() @@ -52,6 +66,27 @@ An HMAC object has the following methods: compute the digests of strings that share a common initial substring. +This module also provides the following helper function: + +.. function:: compare_digest(a, b) + + Return ``a == b``. This function uses an approach designed to prevent + timing analysis by avoiding content-based short circuiting behaviour, + making it appropriate for cryptography. *a* and *b* must both be of the + same type: either :class:`str` (ASCII only, as e.g. returned by + :meth:`HMAC.hexdigest`), or any type that supports the buffer protocol + (e.g. :class:`bytes`). + + .. note:: + + If *a* and *b* are of different lengths, or if an error occurs, + a timing attack could theoretically reveal information about the + types and lengths of *a* and *b*--but not their values. + + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. seealso:: Module :mod:`hashlib` diff --git a/Doc/library/html.entities.rst b/Doc/library/html.entities.rst index b8b4aa8..65ce817 100644 --- a/Doc/library/html.entities.rst +++ b/Doc/library/html.entities.rst @@ -9,11 +9,19 @@ -------------- -This module defines three dictionaries, ``name2codepoint``, ``codepoint2name``, -and ``entitydefs``. ``entitydefs`` is used to provide the :attr:`entitydefs` -attribute of the :class:`html.parser.HTMLParser` class. The definition provided -here contains all the entities defined by XHTML 1.0 that can be handled using -simple textual substitution in the Latin-1 character set (ISO-8859-1). +This module defines four dictionaries, :data:`html5`, +:data:`name2codepoint`, :data:`codepoint2name`, and :data:`entitydefs`. + + +.. data:: html5 + + A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references [#]_ to the + equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g. ``html5['gt;'] == '>'``. + Note that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g. ``'gt;'``), + however some of the names are accepted by the standard even without the + semicolon: in this case the name is present with and without the ``';'``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. data:: entitydefs @@ -30,3 +38,8 @@ simple textual substitution in the Latin-1 character set (ISO-8859-1). .. data:: codepoint2name A dictionary that maps Unicode codepoints to HTML entity names. + + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#] See http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/named-character-references.html diff --git a/Doc/library/html.parser.rst b/Doc/library/html.parser.rst index f3c36ec..e4154ef 100644 --- a/Doc/library/html.parser.rst +++ b/Doc/library/html.parser.rst @@ -16,13 +16,14 @@ This module defines a class :class:`HTMLParser` which serves as the basis for parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML. -.. class:: HTMLParser(strict=True) +.. class:: HTMLParser(strict=False) - Create a parser instance. If *strict* is ``True`` (the default), invalid - HTML results in :exc:`~html.parser.HTMLParseError` exceptions [#]_. If - *strict* is ``False``, the parser uses heuristics to make a best guess at - the intention of any invalid HTML it encounters, similar to the way most - browsers do. Using ``strict=False`` is advised. + Create a parser instance. If *strict* is ``False`` (the default), the parser + will accept and parse invalid markup. If *strict* is ``True`` the parser + will raise an :exc:`~html.parser.HTMLParseError` exception instead [#]_ when + it's not able to parse the markup. + The use of ``strict=True`` is discouraged and the *strict* argument is + deprecated. An :class:`.HTMLParser` instance is fed HTML data and calls handler methods when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and other markup elements are @@ -32,7 +33,12 @@ parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML. This parser does not check that end tags match start tags or call the end-tag handler for elements which are closed implicitly by closing an outer element. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 *strict* keyword added + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + *strict* keyword added. + + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 3.5 + The *strict* argument and the strict mode have been deprecated. + The parser is now able to accept and parse invalid markup too. An exception is defined as well: @@ -46,6 +52,10 @@ An exception is defined as well: detected, and :attr:`offset` is the number of characters into the line at which the construct starts. + .. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 3.5 + This exception has been deprecated because it's never raised by the parser + (when the default non-strict mode is used). + Example HTML Parser Application ------------------------------- diff --git a/Doc/library/http.client.rst b/Doc/library/http.client.rst index d439f24..5599dac 100644 --- a/Doc/library/http.client.rst +++ b/Doc/library/http.client.rst @@ -343,6 +343,15 @@ and also the following constants for integer status codes: | :const:`UPGRADE_REQUIRED` | ``426`` | HTTP Upgrade to TLS, | | | | :rfc:`2817`, Section 6 | +------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| :const:`PRECONDITION_REQUIRED` | ``428`` | Additional HTTP Status Codes, | +| | | :rfc:`6585`, Section 3 | ++------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| :const:`TOO_MANY_REQUESTS` | ``429`` | Additional HTTP Status Codes, | +| | | :rfc:`6585`, Section 4 | ++------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| :const:`REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE` | ``431`` | Additional HTTP Status Codes, | +| | | :rfc:`6585`, Section 5 | ++------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | :const:`INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR` | ``500`` | HTTP/1.1, `RFC 2616, Section | | | | 10.5.1 | | | | <http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616-sec10.html#sec10.5.1>`_ | @@ -373,6 +382,12 @@ and also the following constants for integer status codes: | :const:`NOT_EXTENDED` | ``510`` | An HTTP Extension Framework, | | | | :rfc:`2774`, Section 7 | +------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| :const:`NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED` | ``511`` | Additional HTTP Status Codes, | +| | | :rfc:`6585`, Section 6 | ++------------------------------------------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added codes ``428``, ``429``, ``431`` and ``511`` from :rfc:`6585`. .. data:: responses @@ -506,6 +521,12 @@ statement. Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next *amt* bytes. +.. method:: HTTPResponse.readinto(b) + + Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the buffer *b*. + Returns the number of bytes read. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. method:: HTTPResponse.getheader(name, default=None) diff --git a/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst b/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst index cc8f251..40f24f2 100644 --- a/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst +++ b/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst @@ -40,7 +40,11 @@ The module defines the following exception: .. exception:: LoadError Instances of :class:`FileCookieJar` raise this exception on failure to load - cookies from a file. :exc:`LoadError` is a subclass of :exc:`IOError`. + cookies from a file. :exc:`LoadError` is a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + LoadError was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError` instead of + :exc:`IOError`. The following classes are provided: @@ -257,9 +261,12 @@ contained :class:`Cookie` objects. Arguments are as for :meth:`save`. The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or - :exc:`LoadError` will be raised. Also, :exc:`IOError` may be raised, for + :exc:`LoadError` will be raised. Also, :exc:`OSError` may be raised, for example if the file does not exist. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised, it is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. method:: FileCookieJar.revert(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False) diff --git a/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst b/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst index 5ae3fd4..646f2e8 100644 --- a/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst +++ b/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst @@ -22,9 +22,12 @@ many current day browsers and servers have relaxed parsing rules when comes to Cookie handling. As a result, the parsing rules used are a bit less strict. The character set, :data:`string.ascii_letters`, :data:`string.digits` and -``!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~`` denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module +``!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:`` denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module in Cookie name (as :attr:`~Morsel.key`). +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Allowed ':' as a valid Cookie name character. + .. note:: diff --git a/Doc/library/http.server.rst b/Doc/library/http.server.rst index 300e332..cbad3ed 100644 --- a/Doc/library/http.server.rst +++ b/Doc/library/http.server.rst @@ -179,19 +179,30 @@ of which this module provides three different variants: .. method:: send_response(code, message=None) - Sends a response header and logs the accepted request. The HTTP response - line is sent, followed by *Server* and *Date* headers. The values for - these two headers are picked up from the :meth:`version_string` and - :meth:`date_time_string` methods, respectively. + Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the accepted + request. The HTTP response line is written to the internal buffer, + followed by *Server* and *Date* headers. The values for these two headers + are picked up from the :meth:`version_string` and + :meth:`date_time_string` methods, respectively. If the server does not + intend to send any other headers using the :meth:`send_header` method, + then :meth:`send_response` should be followed by a :meth:`end_headers` + call. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Headers are stored to an internal buffer and :meth:`end_headers` + needs to be called explicitly. + .. method:: send_header(keyword, value) - Stores the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the - output stream when :meth:`end_headers` method is invoked. - *keyword* should specify the header keyword, with *value* - specifying its value. + Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the + output stream when either :meth:`end_headers` or :meth:`flush_headers` is + invoked. *keyword* should specify the header keyword, with *value* + specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done, + :meth:`end_headers` MUST BE called in order to complete the operation. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Storing the headers in an internal buffer + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + Headers are stored in an internal buffer. .. method:: send_response_only(code, message=None) @@ -205,10 +216,19 @@ of which this module provides three different variants: .. method:: end_headers() - Write the buffered HTTP headers to the output stream and send a blank - line, indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response. + Adds a blank line + (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response) + to the headers buffer and calls :meth:`flush_headers()`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + The buffered headers are written to the output stream. + + .. method:: flush_headers() + + Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the internal + headers buffer. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Writing the buffered headers to the output stream. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. method:: log_request(code='-', size='-') @@ -250,8 +270,11 @@ of which this module provides three different variants: .. method:: address_string() - Returns the client address, formatted for logging. A name lookup is - performed on the client's IP address. + Returns the client address. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Previously, a name lookup was performed. To avoid name resolution + delays, it now always returns the IP address. .. class:: SimpleHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server) @@ -299,7 +322,7 @@ of which this module provides three different variants: response if the :func:`listdir` fails. If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened and the contents are - returned. Any :exc:`IOError` exception in opening the requested file is + returned. Any :exc:`OSError` exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a ``404``, ``'File not found'`` error. Otherwise, the content type is guessed by calling the :meth:`guess_type` method, which in turn uses the *extensions_map* variable. @@ -378,3 +401,9 @@ the previous example, this serves files relative to the current directory. :: Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for security reasons. Problems with the CGI script will be translated to error 403. + +:class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` can be enabled in the command line by passing +the ``--cgi`` option.:: + + python -m http.server --cgi 8000 + diff --git a/Doc/library/imaplib.rst b/Doc/library/imaplib.rst index 3f45c95..fefb284 100644 --- a/Doc/library/imaplib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/imaplib.rst @@ -64,14 +64,21 @@ Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the :class:`IMAP4` class: There's also a subclass for secure connections: -.. class:: IMAP4_SSL(host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, keyfile=None, certfile=None) +.. class:: IMAP4_SSL(host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, keyfile=None, certfile=None, ssl_context=None) This is a subclass derived from :class:`IMAP4` that connects over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket module that was compiled with SSL support). If *host* is not specified, ``''`` (the local host) is used. If *port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used. *keyfile* and *certfile* are also optional - they can contain a PEM formatted private key - and certificate chain file for the SSL connection. + and certificate chain file for the SSL connection. *ssl_context* parameter is a + :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object which allows bundling SSL configuration + options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) + structure. Note that the *keyfile*/*certfile* parameters are mutually exclusive with *ssl_context*, + a :class:`ValueError` is thrown if *keyfile*/*certfile* is provided along with *ssl_context*. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *ssl_context* parameter added. The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process: @@ -106,13 +113,15 @@ The following utility functions are defined: .. function:: Time2Internaldate(date_time) - Convert *date_time* to an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE`` representation. The - return value is a string in the form: ``"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS - +HHMM"`` (including double-quotes). The *date_time* argument can be a - number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as returned - by :func:`time.time`), a 9-tuple representing local time (as returned by - :func:`time.localtime`), or a double-quoted string. In the last case, it - is assumed to already be in the correct format. + Convert *date_time* to an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE`` representation. + The return value is a string in the form: ``"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS + +HHMM"`` (including double-quotes). The *date_time* argument can + be a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as + returned by :func:`time.time`), a 9-tuple representing local time + an instance of :class:`time.struct_time` (as returned by + :func:`time.localtime`), an aware instance of + :class:`datetime.datetime`, or a double-quoted string. In the last + case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format. Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in particular, after an ``EXPUNGE`` command performs deletions the remaining messages are diff --git a/Doc/library/imp.rst b/Doc/library/imp.rst index 1345b25..5cadda9 100644 --- a/Doc/library/imp.rst +++ b/Doc/library/imp.rst @@ -30,6 +30,9 @@ This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the :const:`PY_SOURCE`, :const:`PY_COMPILED`, or :const:`C_EXTENSION`, described below. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use the constants defined on :mod:`importlib.machinery` instead. + .. function:: find_module(name[, path]) @@ -69,6 +72,9 @@ This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the then use :func:`find_module` with the *path* argument set to ``P.__path__``. When *P* itself has a dotted name, apply this recipe recursively. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use :func:`importlib.find_loader` instead. + .. function:: load_module(name, file, pathname, description) @@ -90,6 +96,10 @@ This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the it was not ``None``, even when an exception is raised. This is best done using a :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` statement. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Unneeded as loaders should be used to load modules and + :func:`find_module` is deprecated. + .. function:: new_module(name) @@ -97,37 +107,6 @@ This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the in ``sys.modules``. -.. function:: lock_held() - - Return ``True`` if the import lock is currently held, else ``False``. On - platforms without threads, always return ``False``. - - On platforms with threads, a thread executing an import holds an internal lock - until the import is complete. This lock blocks other threads from doing an - import until the original import completes, which in turn prevents other threads - from seeing incomplete module objects constructed by the original thread while - in the process of completing its import (and the imports, if any, triggered by - that). - - -.. function:: acquire_lock() - - Acquire the interpreter's import lock for the current thread. This lock should - be used by import hooks to ensure thread-safety when importing modules. - - Once a thread has acquired the import lock, the same thread may acquire it - again without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it has - acquired it. - - On platforms without threads, this function does nothing. - - -.. function:: release_lock() - - Release the interpreter's import lock. On platforms without threads, this - function does nothing. - - .. function:: reload(module) Reload a previously imported *module*. The argument must be a module object, so @@ -201,14 +180,19 @@ file paths. source *path*. For example, if *path* is ``/foo/bar/baz.py`` the return value would be ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` for Python 3.2. The ``cpython-32`` string comes from the current magic tag (see - :func:`get_tag`). The returned path will end in ``.pyc`` when - ``__debug__`` is True or ``.pyo`` for an optimized Python + :func:`get_tag`; if :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined then + :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised). The returned path will end in + ``.pyc`` when ``__debug__`` is True or ``.pyo`` for an optimized Python (i.e. ``__debug__`` is False). By passing in True or False for *debug_override* you can override the system's value for ``__debug__`` for extension selection. *path* need not exist. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + If :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is ``None``, then + :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised. + .. function:: source_from_cache(path) @@ -216,7 +200,13 @@ file paths. file path. For example, if *path* is ``/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc`` the returned path would be ``/foo/bar/baz.py``. *path* need not exist, however if it does not conform - to :pep:`3147` format, a ``ValueError`` is raised. + to :pep:`3147` format, a ``ValueError`` is raised. If + :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined, + :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` when + :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` is not defined. .. function:: get_tag() @@ -224,6 +214,64 @@ file paths. Return the :pep:`3147` magic tag string matching this version of Python's magic number, as returned by :func:`get_magic`. + .. note:: + You may use :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag` directly starting + in Python 3.3. + + +The following functions help interact with the import system's internal +locking mechanism. Locking semantics of imports are an implementation +detail which may vary from release to release. However, Python ensures +that circular imports work without any deadlocks. + + +.. function:: lock_held() + + Return ``True`` if the global import lock is currently held, else + ``False``. On platforms without threads, always return ``False``. + + On platforms with threads, a thread executing an import first holds a + global import lock, then sets up a per-module lock for the rest of the + import. This blocks other threads from importing the same module until + the original import completes, preventing other threads from seeing + incomplete module objects constructed by the original thread. An + exception is made for circular imports, which by construction have to + expose an incomplete module object at some point. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for + the most part. A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks, + such as initializing the per-module locks. + + +.. function:: acquire_lock() + + Acquire the interpreter's global import lock for the current thread. + This lock should be used by import hooks to ensure thread-safety when + importing modules. + + Once a thread has acquired the import lock, the same thread may acquire it + again without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it has + acquired it. + + On platforms without threads, this function does nothing. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for + the most part. A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks, + such as initializing the per-module locks. + + +.. function:: release_lock() + + Release the interpreter's global import lock. On platforms without + threads, this function does nothing. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The locking scheme has changed to per-module locks for + the most part. A global import lock is kept for some critical tasks, + such as initializing the per-module locks. + The following constants with integer values, defined in this module, are used to indicate the search result of :func:`find_module`. @@ -233,31 +281,43 @@ to indicate the search result of :func:`find_module`. The module was found as a source file. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. data:: PY_COMPILED The module was found as a compiled code object file. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. data:: C_EXTENSION The module was found as dynamically loadable shared library. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. data:: PKG_DIRECTORY The module was found as a package directory. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. data:: C_BUILTIN The module was found as a built-in module. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. data:: PY_FROZEN The module was found as a frozen module. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. class:: NullImporter(path_string) diff --git a/Doc/library/importlib.rst b/Doc/library/importlib.rst index 1649063..04097f0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/importlib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/importlib.rst @@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ Details on custom importers can be found in :pep:`302`. Functions --------- -.. function:: __import__(name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=list(), level=0) +.. function:: __import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0) An implementation of the built-in :func:`__import__` function. @@ -86,6 +86,30 @@ Functions that was imported (e.g. ``pkg.mod``), while :func:`__import__` returns the top-level package or module (e.g. ``pkg``). +.. function:: find_loader(name, path=None) + + Find the loader for a module, optionally within the specified *path*. If the + module is in :attr:`sys.modules`, then ``sys.modules[name].__loader__`` is + returned (unless the loader would be ``None``, in which case + :exc:`ValueError` is raised). Otherwise a search using :attr:`sys.meta_path` + is done. ``None`` is returned if no loader is found. + + A dotted name does not have its parent's implicitly imported. If that is + desired (although not nessarily required to find the loader, it will most + likely be needed if the loader actually is used to load the module), then + you will have to import the packages containing the module prior to calling + this function. + +.. function:: invalidate_caches() + + Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at + :data:`sys.meta_path`. If a finder implements ``invalidate_caches()`` then it + will be called to perform the invalidation. This function may be needed if + some modules are installed while your program is running and you expect the + program to notice the changes. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + :mod:`importlib.abc` -- Abstract base classes related to import --------------------------------------------------------------- @@ -97,19 +121,90 @@ The :mod:`importlib.abc` module contains all of the core abstract base classes used by :keyword:`import`. Some subclasses of the core abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. +ABC hierarchy:: + + object + +-- Finder (deprecated) + | +-- MetaPathFinder + | +-- PathEntryFinder + +-- Loader + +-- ResourceLoader --------+ + +-- InspectLoader | + +-- ExecutionLoader --+ + +-- FileLoader + +-- SourceLoader + +-- PyLoader (deprecated) + +-- PyPycLoader (deprecated) + .. class:: Finder - An abstract base class representing a :term:`finder`. - See :pep:`302` for the exact definition for a finder. + An abstract base class representing a :term:`finder`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Use :class:`MetaPathFinder` or :class:`PathEntryFinder` instead. + + .. method:: find_module(fullname, path=None) + + An abstact method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified + module. Originally specified in :pep:`302`, this method was meant + for use in :data:`sys.meta_path` and in the path-based import subsystem. + + +.. class:: MetaPathFinder + + An abstract base class representing a :term:`meta path finder`. For + compatibility, this is a subclass of :class:`Finder`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: find_module(fullname, path) + + An abstract method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified + module. If this is a top-level import, *path* will be ``None``. + Otheriwse, this is a search for a subpackage or module and *path* + will be the value of :attr:`__path__` from the parent + package. If a loader cannot be found, ``None`` is returned. + + .. method:: invalidate_caches() + + An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal + cache used by the finder. Used by :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` + when invalidating the caches of all finders on :data:`sys.meta_path`. + - .. method:: find_module(fullname, path=None) +.. class:: PathEntryFinder - An abstract method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified - module. If the :term:`finder` is found on :data:`sys.meta_path` and the - module to be searched for is a subpackage or module then *path* will - be the value of :attr:`__path__` from the parent package. If a loader - cannot be found, ``None`` is returned. + An abstract base class representing a :term:`path entry finder`. Though + it bears some similarities to :class:`MetaPathFinder`, ``PathEntryFinder`` + is meant for use only within the path-based import subsystem provided + by :class:`PathFinder`. This ABC is a subclass of :class:`Finder` for + compatibility. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: find_loader(fullname): + + An abstract method for finding a :term:`loader` for the specified + module. Returns a 2-tuple of ``(loader, portion)`` where ``portion`` + is a sequence of file system locations contributing to part of a namespace + package. The loader may be ``None`` while specifying ``portion`` to + signify the contribution of the file system locations to a namespace + package. An empty list can be used for ``portion`` to signify the loader + is not part of a package. If ``loader`` is ``None`` and ``portion`` is + the empty list then no loader or location for a namespace package were + found (i.e. failure to find anything for the module). + + .. method:: find_module(fullname): + + A concrete implementation of :meth:`Finder.find_module` which is + equivalent to ``self.find_loader(fullname)[0]``. + + .. method:: invalidate_caches() + + An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal + cache used by the finder. Used by :meth:`PathFinder.invalidate_caches` + when invalidating the caches of all cached finders. .. class:: Loader @@ -159,6 +254,13 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. (This is not set by the built-in import machinery, but it should be set whenever a :term:`loader` is used.) + .. method:: module_repr(module) + + An abstract method which when implemented calculates and returns the + given module's repr, as a string. + + .. versionadded: 3.3 + .. class:: ResourceLoader @@ -224,6 +326,38 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. module. +.. class:: FileLoader(fullname, path) + + An abstract base class which inherits from :class:`ResourceLoader` and + :class:`ExecutionLoader`, providing concreate implementations of + :meth:`ResourceLoader.get_data` and :meth:`ExecutionLoader.get_filename`. + + The *fullname* argument is a fully resolved name of the module the loader is + to handle. The *path* argument is the path to the file for the module. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: name + + The name of the module the loader can handle. + + .. attribute:: path + + Path to the file of the module. + + .. method:: load_module(fullname) + + Calls super's ``load_module()``. + + .. method:: get_filename(fullname) + + Returns :attr:`path`. + + .. method:: get_data(path) + + Returns the open, binary file for *path*. + + .. class:: SourceLoader An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally bytecode) @@ -243,12 +377,31 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. optimization to speed up loading by removing the parsing step of Python's compiler, and so no bytecode-specific API is exposed. - .. method:: path_mtime(self, path) + .. method:: path_stats(path) + + Optional abstract method which returns a :class:`dict` containing + metadata about the specifed path. Supported dictionary keys are: + + - ``'mtime'`` (mandatory): an integer or floating-point number + representing the modification time of the source code; + - ``'size'`` (optional): the size in bytes of the source code. + + Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for future + extensions. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: path_mtime(path) Optional abstract method which returns the modification time for the specified path. - .. method:: set_data(self, path, data) + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This method is deprecated in favour of :meth:`path_stats`. You don't + have to implement it, but it is still available for compatibility + purposes. + + .. method:: set_data(path, data) Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a file path. Any intermediate directories which do not exist are to be created @@ -257,23 +410,25 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only (:attr:`errno.EACCES`), do not propagate the exception. - .. method:: get_code(self, fullname) + .. method:: get_code(fullname) Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.get_code`. - .. method:: load_module(self, fullname) + .. method:: load_module(fullname) Concrete implementation of :meth:`Loader.load_module`. - .. method:: get_source(self, fullname) + .. method:: get_source(fullname) Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.get_source`. - .. method:: is_package(self, fullname) + .. method:: is_package(fullname) Concrete implementation of :meth:`InspectLoader.is_package`. A module - is determined to be a package if its file path is a file named - ``__init__`` when the file extension is removed. + is determined to be a package if its file path (as provided by + :meth:`ExecutionLoader.get_filename`) is a file named + ``__init__`` when the file extension is removed **and** the module name + itself does not end in ``__init__``. .. class:: PyLoader @@ -374,6 +529,10 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. :class:`PyLoader`. Do note that this solution will not support sourceless/bytecode-only loading; only source *and* bytecode loading. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to parse (but not use) the new source size field in bytecode + files when reading and to write out the field properly when writing. + .. method:: source_mtime(fullname) An abstract method which returns the modification time for the source @@ -417,12 +576,59 @@ are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. This module contains the various objects that help :keyword:`import` find and load modules. +.. attribute:: SOURCE_SUFFIXES + + A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source + modules. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. attribute:: DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES + + A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode + modules. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. attribute:: OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES + + A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode + modules. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. attribute:: BYTECODE_SUFFIXES + + A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode + modules. Set to either :attr:`DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` or + :attr:`OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` based on whether ``__debug__`` is true. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. attribute:: EXTENSION_SUFFIXES + + A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for + extension modules. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: all_suffixes() + + Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for + modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a + helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path + potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind + of module (for example, :func:`inspect.getmodulename`) + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. class:: BuiltinImporter An :term:`importer` for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are listed in :data:`sys.builtin_module_names`. This class implements the - :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` and :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` - ABCs. + :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and + :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. @@ -431,48 +637,223 @@ find and load modules. .. class:: FrozenImporter An :term:`importer` for frozen modules. This class implements the - :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` and :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` - ABCs. + :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and + :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. +.. class:: WindowsRegistryFinder + + :term:`Finder` for modules declared in the Windows registry. This class + implements the :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` ABC. + + Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for + instantiation. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. class:: PathFinder - :term:`Finder` for :data:`sys.path`. This class implements the - :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` ABC. + A :term:`Finder` for :data:`sys.path` and package ``__path__`` attributes. + This class implements the :class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` ABC. - This class does not perfectly mirror the semantics of :keyword:`import` in - terms of :data:`sys.path`. No implicit path hooks are assumed for - simplification of the class and its semantics. + Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for + instantiation. - Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for - instantiation. + .. classmethod:: find_module(fullname, path=None) + + Class method that attempts to find a :term:`loader` for the module + specified by *fullname* on :data:`sys.path` or, if defined, on + *path*. For each path entry that is searched, + :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` is checked. If a non-false object is + found then it is used as the :term:`finder` to look for the module + being searched for. If no entry is found in + :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`, then :data:`sys.path_hooks` is + searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in + :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` along with being queried about the + module. If no finder is ever found then ``None`` is both stored in + the cache and returned. + + .. classmethod:: invalidate_caches() + + Calls :meth:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches` on all + finders stored in :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache`. + + +.. class:: FileFinder(path, \*loader_details) + + A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder` which + caches results from the file system. + + The *path* argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of + searching. + + The *loader_details* argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each + containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes. + + The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls + for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache + staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system's state + information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of + searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the + module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit + within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To + prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure + to call :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: path + + The path the finder will search in. + + .. method:: find_module(fullname) + + Attempt to find the loader to handle *fullname* within :attr:`path`. + + .. method:: invalidate_caches() + + Clear out the internal cache. + + .. classmethod:: path_hook(\*loader_details) + + A class method which returns a closure for use on :attr:`sys.path_hooks`. + An instance of :class:`FileFinder` is returned by the closure using the + path argument given to the closure directly and *loader_details* + indirectly. + + If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory, + :exc:`ImportError` is raised. + + +.. class:: SourceFileLoader(fullname, path) + + A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader` by + subclassing :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` and providing some concrete + implementations of other methods. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: name + + The name of the module that this loader will handle. + + .. attribute:: path + + The path to the source file. + + .. method:: is_package(fullname) + + Return true if :attr:`path` appears to be for a package. + + .. method:: path_stats(path) + + Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats`. + + .. method:: set_data(path, data) + + Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data`. + + +.. class:: SourcelessFileLoader(fullname, path) - .. classmethod:: find_module(fullname, path=None) + A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` which can + import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist). - Class method that attempts to find a :term:`loader` for the module - specified by *fullname* on :data:`sys.path` or, if defined, on - *path*. For each path entry that is searched, - :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` is checked. If an non-false object is - found then it is used as the :term:`finder` to look for the module - being searched for. If no entry is found in - :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`, then :data:`sys.path_hooks` is - searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in - :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` along with being queried about the - module. If no finder is ever found then ``None`` is returned. + Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code + files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python + implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode + format. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: name + + The name of the module the loader will handle. + + .. attribute:: path + + The path to the bytecode file. + + .. method:: is_package(fullname) + + Determines if the module is a package based on :attr:`path`. + + .. method:: get_code(fullname) + + Returns the code object for :attr:`name` created from :attr:`path`. + + .. method:: get_source(fullname) + + Returns ``None`` as bytecode files have no source when this loader is + used. + + +.. class:: ExtensionFileLoader(fullname, path) + + A concrete implementation of :class:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader` for + extension modules. + + The *fullname* argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to + support. The *path* argument is the path to the extension module's file. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: name + + Name of the module the loader supports. + + .. attribute:: path + + Path to the extension module. + + .. method:: load_module(fullname) + + Loads the extension module if and only if *fullname* is the same as + :attr:`name` or is ``None``. + + .. method:: is_package(fullname) + + Returns ``True`` if the file path points to a package's ``__init__`` + module based on :attr:`EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`. + + .. method:: get_code(fullname) + + Returns ``None`` as extension modules lack a code object. + + .. method:: get_source(fullname) + + Returns ``None`` as extension modules do not have source code. :mod:`importlib.util` -- Utility code for importers --------------------------------------------------- .. module:: importlib.util - :synopsis: Importers and path hooks + :synopsis: Utility code for importers This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of an :term:`importer`. +.. function:: resolve_name(name, package) + + Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one. + + If **name** has no leading dots, then **name** is simply returned. This + allows for usage such as + ``importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __package__)`` without doing a + check to see if the **package** argument is needed. + + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if **name** is a relative module name but + package is a false value (e.g. ``None`` or the empty string). + :exc:`ValueError` is also raised a relative name would escape its containing + package (e.g. requesting ``..bacon`` from within the ``spam`` package). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. decorator:: module_for_loader A :term:`decorator` for a :term:`loader` method, @@ -481,22 +862,30 @@ an :term:`importer`. signature taking two positional arguments (e.g. ``load_module(self, module)``) for which the second argument will be the module **object** to be used by the loader. - Note that the decorator - will not work on static methods because of the assumption of two - arguments. + Note that the decorator will not work on static methods because of the + assumption of two arguments. The decorated method will take in the **name** of the module to be loaded as expected for a :term:`loader`. If the module is not found in :data:`sys.modules` then a new one is constructed with its - :attr:`__name__` attribute set. Otherwise the module found in - :data:`sys.modules` will be passed into the method. If an - exception is raised by the decorated method and a module was added to + :attr:`__name__` attribute set to **name**, :attr:`__loader__` set to + **self**, and :attr:`__package__` set if + :meth:`importlib.abc.InspectLoader.is_package` is defined for **self** and + does not raise :exc:`ImportError` for **name**. If a new module is not + needed then the module found in :data:`sys.modules` will be passed into the + method. + + If an exception is raised by the decorated method and a module was added to :data:`sys.modules` it will be removed to prevent a partially initialized module from being in left in :data:`sys.modules`. If the module was already in :data:`sys.modules` then it is left alone. Use of this decorator handles all the details of which module object a - loader should initialize as specified by :pep:`302`. + loader should initialize as specified by :pep:`302` as best as possible. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :attr:`__loader__` and :attr:`__package__` are automatically set + (when possible). .. decorator:: set_loader @@ -504,7 +893,13 @@ an :term:`importer`. to set the :attr:`__loader__` attribute on loaded modules. If the attribute is already set the decorator does nothing. It is assumed that the first positional argument to the - wrapped method is what :attr:`__loader__` should be set to. + wrapped method (i.e. ``self``) is what :attr:`__loader__` should be set to. + + .. note:: + + It is recommended that :func:`module_for_loader` be used over this + decorator as it subsumes this functionality. + .. decorator:: set_package @@ -515,8 +910,12 @@ an :term:`importer`. set on and not the module found in :data:`sys.modules`. Reliance on this decorator is discouraged when it is possible to set - :attr:`__package__` before the execution of the code is possible. By - setting it before the code for the module is executed it allows the - attribute to be used at the global level of the module during + :attr:`__package__` before importing. By + setting it beforehand the code for the module is executed with the + attribute set and thus can be used by global level code during initialization. + .. note:: + + It is recommended that :func:`module_for_loader` be used over this + decorator as it subsumes this functionality. diff --git a/Doc/library/index.rst b/Doc/library/index.rst index 9ac688c..ba20361 100644 --- a/Doc/library/index.rst +++ b/Doc/library/index.rst @@ -46,7 +46,8 @@ the `Python Package Index <http://pypi.python.org/pypi>`_. stdtypes.rst exceptions.rst - strings.rst + text.rst + binary.rst datatypes.rst numeric.rst functional.rst @@ -56,7 +57,7 @@ the `Python Package Index <http://pypi.python.org/pypi>`_. fileformats.rst crypto.rst allos.rst - someos.rst + concurrency.rst ipc.rst netdata.rst markup.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/inspect.rst b/Doc/library/inspect.rst index d127ce8..d1d2dea 100644 --- a/Doc/library/inspect.rst +++ b/Doc/library/inspect.rst @@ -190,13 +190,26 @@ attributes: compared to the constants defined in the :mod:`imp` module; see the documentation for that module for more information on module types. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + You may check the file path's suffix against the supported suffixes + listed in :mod:`importlib.machinery` to infer the same information. + .. function:: getmodulename(path) Return the name of the module named by the file *path*, without including the - names of enclosing packages. This uses the same algorithm as the interpreter - uses when searching for modules. If the name cannot be matched according to the - interpreter's rules, ``None`` is returned. + names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of + the entries in :func:`importlib.machinery.all_suffixes`. If it matches, + the final path component is returned with the extension removed. + Otherwise, ``None`` is returned. + + Note that this function *only* returns a meaningful name for actual + Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will + still return ``None``. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function is now based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than the + deprecated :func:`getmoduleinfo`. .. function:: ismodule(object) @@ -355,17 +368,25 @@ Retrieving source code argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first - line of code was found. An :exc:`IOError` is raised if the source code cannot + line of code was found. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the + former. + .. function:: getsource(object) Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is - returned as a single string. An :exc:`IOError` is raised if the source code + returned as a single string. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`OSError` is raised instead of :exc:`IOError`, now an alias of the + former. + .. function:: cleandoc(doc) @@ -374,6 +395,264 @@ Retrieving source code onwards is removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces. +.. _inspect-signature-object: + +Introspecting callables with the Signature object +------------------------------------------------- + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its +return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the :func:`signature` +function. + +.. function:: signature(callable) + + Return a :class:`Signature` object for the given ``callable``:: + + >>> from inspect import signature + >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs): + ... pass + + >>> sig = signature(foo) + + >>> str(sig) + '(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)' + + >>> str(sig.parameters['b']) + 'b:int' + + >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation + <class 'int'> + + Accepts a wide range of python callables, from plain functions and classes to + :func:`functools.partial` objects. + + .. note:: + + Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of + Python. For example, in CPython, built-in functions defined in C provide + no metadata about their arguments. + + +.. class:: Signature + + A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return + annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a + :class:`Parameter` object in its :attr:`parameters` collection. + + Signature objects are *immutable*. Use :meth:`Signature.replace` to make a + modified copy. + + .. attribute:: Signature.empty + + A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation. + + .. attribute:: Signature.parameters + + An ordered mapping of parameters' names to the corresponding + :class:`Parameter` objects. + + .. attribute:: Signature.return_annotation + + The "return" annotation for the callable. If the callable has no "return" + annotation, this attribute is set to :attr:`Signature.empty`. + + .. method:: Signature.bind(*args, **kwargs) + + Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters. + Returns :class:`BoundArguments` if ``*args`` and ``**kwargs`` match the + signature, or raises a :exc:`TypeError`. + + .. method:: Signature.bind_partial(*args, **kwargs) + + Works the same way as :meth:`Signature.bind`, but allows the omission of + some required arguments (mimics :func:`functools.partial` behavior.) + Returns :class:`BoundArguments`, or raises a :exc:`TypeError` if the + passed arguments do not match the signature. + + .. method:: Signature.replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation]) + + Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace was invoked + on. It is possible to pass different ``parameters`` and/or + ``return_annotation`` to override the corresponding properties of the base + signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in + :attr:`Signature.empty`. + + :: + + >>> def test(a, b): + ... pass + >>> sig = signature(test) + >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno") + >>> str(new_sig) + "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'" + + +.. class:: Parameter + + Parameter objects are *immutable*. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, + you can use :meth:`Parameter.replace` to create a modified copy. + + .. attribute:: Parameter.empty + + A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and + annotations. + + .. attribute:: Parameter.name + + The name of the parameter as a string. Must be a valid python identifier + name (with the exception of ``POSITIONAL_ONLY`` parameters, which can have + it set to ``None``). + + .. attribute:: Parameter.default + + The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default + value, this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`. + + .. attribute:: Parameter.annotation + + The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, + this attribute is set to :attr:`Parameter.empty`. + + .. attribute:: Parameter.kind + + Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. Possible values + (accessible via :class:`Parameter`, like ``Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY``): + + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + | Name | Meaning | + +========================+==============================================+ + | *POSITIONAL_ONLY* | Value must be supplied as a positional | + | | argument. | + | | | + | | Python has no explicit syntax for defining | + | | positional-only parameters, but many built-in| + | | and extension module functions (especially | + | | those that accept only one or two parameters)| + | | accept them. | + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + | *POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD*| Value may be supplied as either a keyword or | + | | positional argument (this is the standard | + | | binding behaviour for functions implemented | + | | in Python.) | + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + | *VAR_POSITIONAL* | A tuple of positional arguments that aren't | + | | bound to any other parameter. This | + | | corresponds to a ``*args`` parameter in a | + | | Python function definition. | + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + | *KEYWORD_ONLY* | Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.| + | | Keyword only parameters are those which | + | | appear after a ``*`` or ``*args`` entry in a | + | | Python function definition. | + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + | *VAR_KEYWORD* | A dict of keyword arguments that aren't bound| + | | to any other parameter. This corresponds to a| + | | ``**kwargs`` parameter in a Python function | + | | definition. | + +------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ + + Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:: + + >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10): + ... pass + + >>> sig = signature(foo) + >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): + ... if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and + ... param.default is param.empty): + ... print('Parameter:', param) + Parameter: c + + .. method:: Parameter.replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation]) + + Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked + on. To override a :class:`Parameter` attribute, pass the corresponding + argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a + Parameter, pass :attr:`Parameter.empty`. + + :: + + >>> from inspect import Parameter + >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42) + >>> str(param) + 'foo=42' + + >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param' + 'foo=42' + + >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam')) + "foo:'spam'" + + +.. class:: BoundArguments + + Result of a :meth:`Signature.bind` or :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` call. + Holds the mapping of arguments to the function's parameters. + + .. attribute:: BoundArguments.arguments + + An ordered, mutable mapping (:class:`collections.OrderedDict`) of + parameters' names to arguments' values. Contains only explicitly bound + arguments. Changes in :attr:`arguments` will reflect in :attr:`args` and + :attr:`kwargs`. + + Should be used in conjunction with :attr:`Signature.parameters` for any + argument processing purposes. + + .. note:: + + Arguments for which :meth:`Signature.bind` or + :meth:`Signature.bind_partial` relied on a default value are skipped. + However, if needed, it is easy to include them. + + :: + + >>> def foo(a, b=10): + ... pass + + >>> sig = signature(foo) + >>> ba = sig.bind(5) + + >>> ba.args, ba.kwargs + ((5,), {}) + + >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): + ... if param.name not in ba.arguments: + ... ba.arguments[param.name] = param.default + + >>> ba.args, ba.kwargs + ((5, 10), {}) + + + .. attribute:: BoundArguments.args + + A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the + :attr:`arguments` attribute. + + .. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs + + A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the + :attr:`arguments` attribute. + + The :attr:`args` and :attr:`kwargs` properties can be used to invoke + functions:: + + def test(a, *, b): + ... + + sig = signature(test) + ba = sig.bind(10, b=20) + test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs) + + +.. seealso:: + + :pep:`362` - Function Signature Object. + The detailed specification, implementation details and examples. + + .. _inspect-classes-functions: Classes and functions @@ -422,6 +701,10 @@ Classes and functions The first four items in the tuple correspond to :func:`getargspec`. + .. note:: + Consider using the new :ref:`Signature Object <inspect-signature-object>` + interface, which provides a better way of introspecting functions. + .. function:: getargvalues(frame) @@ -432,11 +715,16 @@ Classes and functions locals dictionary of the given frame. -.. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue]) +.. function:: formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, formatreturns, formatannotations]) - Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by - :func:`getargspec`. The format\* arguments are the corresponding optional - formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings. + Format a pretty argument spec from the values returned by + :func:`getargspec` or :func:`getfullargspec`. + + The first seven arguments are (``args``, ``varargs``, ``varkw``, + ``defaults``, ``kwonlyargs``, ``kwonlydefaults``, ``annotations``). The + other five arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions + that are called to turn names and values into strings. The last argument + is an optional function to format the sequence of arguments. .. function:: formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue]) @@ -468,17 +756,36 @@ Classes and functions >>> from inspect import getcallargs >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named): ... pass - >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) - {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)} - >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) - {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()} + >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)} + True + >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()} + True >>> getcallargs(f) Traceback (most recent call last): ... - TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given) + TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a' .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. note:: + Consider using the new :meth:`Signature.bind` instead. + + +.. function:: getclosurevars(func) + + Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or + method *func* to their current values. A + :term:`named tuple` ``ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)`` + is returned. *nonlocals* maps referenced names to lexical closure + variables, *globals* to the function's module globals and *builtins* to + the builtins visible from the function body. *unbound* is the set of names + referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the + current module globals and builtins. + + :exc:`TypeError` is raised if *func* is not a Python function or method. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. _inspect-stack: @@ -643,3 +950,27 @@ generator to be determined easily. * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + +The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is +mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being +updated as expected: + +.. function:: getgeneratorlocals(generator) + + Get the mapping of live local variables in *generator* to their current + values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. + This is the equivalent of calling :func:`locals` in the body of the + generator, and all the same caveats apply. + + If *generator* is a :term:`generator` with no currently associated frame, + then an empty dictionary is returned. :exc:`TypeError` is raised if + *generator* is not a Python generator object. + + .. impl-detail:: + + This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame + for introspection, which isn't guaranteed to be the case in all + implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always + return an empty dictionary. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/library/internet.rst b/Doc/library/internet.rst index 6fa7873..ce91dde 100644 --- a/Doc/library/internet.rst +++ b/Doc/library/internet.rst @@ -42,3 +42,4 @@ is currently supported on most popular platforms. Here is an overview: http.cookiejar.rst xmlrpc.client.rst xmlrpc.server.rst + ipaddress.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/io.rst b/Doc/library/io.rst index 62eaf6d..e83e55c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/io.rst +++ b/Doc/library/io.rst @@ -37,6 +37,10 @@ giving a :class:`str` object to the ``write()`` method of a binary stream will raise a ``TypeError``. So will giving a :class:`bytes` object to the ``write()`` method of a text stream. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Operations that used to raise :exc:`IOError` now raise :exc:`OSError`, since + :exc:`IOError` is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`. + Text I/O ^^^^^^^^ @@ -55,7 +59,7 @@ In-memory text streams are also available as :class:`StringIO` objects:: f = io.StringIO("some initial text data") -The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation for the +The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of :class:`TextIOBase`. @@ -113,21 +117,13 @@ High-level Module Interface .. exception:: BlockingIOError - Error raised when blocking would occur on a non-blocking stream. It inherits - :exc:`IOError`. - - In addition to those of :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`BlockingIOError` has one - attribute: - - .. attribute:: characters_written - - An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream - before it blocked. + This is a compatibility alias for the builtin :exc:`BlockingIOError` + exception. .. exception:: UnsupportedOperation - An exception inheriting :exc:`IOError` and :exc:`ValueError` that is raised + An exception inheriting :exc:`OSError` and :exc:`ValueError` that is raised when an unsupported operation is called on a stream. @@ -206,8 +202,8 @@ I/O Base Classes Even though :class:`IOBase` does not declare :meth:`read`, :meth:`readinto`, or :meth:`write` because their signatures will vary, implementations and clients should consider those methods part of the interface. Also, - implementations may raise a :exc:`IOError` when operations they do not - support are called. + implementations may raise a :exc:`ValueError` (or :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`) + when operations they do not support are called. The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file is :class:`bytes`. :class:`bytearray`\s are accepted too, and in some cases @@ -215,15 +211,15 @@ I/O Base Classes :class:`str` data. Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is - undefined. Implementations may raise :exc:`IOError` in this case. + undefined. Implementations may raise :exc:`ValueError` in this case. - IOBase (and its subclasses) support the iterator protocol, meaning that an - :class:`IOBase` object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a stream. - Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the stream is - a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character - strings). See :meth:`~IOBase.readline` below. + :class:`IOBase` (and its subclasses) support the iterator protocol, meaning + that an :class:`IOBase` object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a + stream. Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the + stream is a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding + character strings). See :meth:`~IOBase.readline` below. - IOBase is also a context manager and therefore supports the + :class:`IOBase` is also a context manager and therefore supports the :keyword:`with` statement. In this example, *file* is closed after the :keyword:`with` statement's suite is finished---even if an exception occurs:: @@ -243,12 +239,12 @@ I/O Base Classes .. attribute:: closed - True if the stream is closed. + ``True`` if the stream is closed. .. method:: fileno() Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the stream if it - exists. An :exc:`IOError` is raised if the IO object does not use a file + exists. An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the IO object does not use a file descriptor. .. method:: flush() @@ -264,7 +260,7 @@ I/O Base Classes .. method:: readable() Return ``True`` if the stream can be read from. If False, :meth:`read` - will raise :exc:`IOError`. + will raise :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: readline(limit=-1) @@ -299,10 +295,15 @@ I/O Base Classes .. versionadded:: 3.1 The ``SEEK_*`` constants. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Some operating systems could support additional values, like + :data:`os.SEEK_HOLE` or :data:`os.SEEK_DATA`. The valid values + for a file could depend on it being open in text or binary mode. + .. method:: seekable() Return ``True`` if the stream supports random access. If ``False``, - :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`IOError`. + :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: tell() @@ -320,7 +321,7 @@ I/O Base Classes .. method:: writable() Return ``True`` if the stream supports writing. If ``False``, - :meth:`write` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`IOError`. + :meth:`write` and :meth:`truncate` will raise :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: writelines(lines) @@ -339,7 +340,7 @@ I/O Base Classes (this is left to Buffered I/O and Text I/O, described later in this page). In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase`, - RawIOBase provides the following methods: + :class:`RawIOBase` provides the following methods: .. method:: read(n=-1) @@ -359,18 +360,18 @@ I/O Base Classes .. method:: readinto(b) - Read up to len(b) bytes into bytearray *b* and return the number - of bytes read. If the object is in non-blocking mode and no + Read up to ``len(b)`` bytes into :class:`bytearray` *b* and return the + number of bytes read. If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, ``None`` is returned. .. method:: write(b) - Write the given bytes or bytearray object, *b*, to the underlying raw - stream and return the number of bytes written. This can be less than - ``len(b)``, depending on specifics of the underlying raw stream, and - especially if it is in non-blocking mode. ``None`` is returned if the - raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could be readily - written to it. + Write the given :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` object, *b*, to the + underlying raw stream and return the number of bytes written. This can + be less than ``len(b)``, depending on specifics of the underlying raw + stream, and especially if it is in non-blocking mode. ``None`` is + returned if the raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could + be readily written to it. .. class:: BufferedIOBase @@ -420,8 +421,8 @@ I/O Base Classes .. method:: read(n=-1) Read and return up to *n* bytes. If the argument is omitted, ``None``, or - negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached. An empty bytes - object is returned if the stream is already at EOF. + negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached. An empty + :class:`bytes` object is returned if the stream is already at EOF. If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is not interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy the byte count @@ -441,22 +442,23 @@ I/O Base Classes .. method:: readinto(b) - Read up to len(b) bytes into bytearray *b* and return the number of bytes - read. + Read up to ``len(b)`` bytes into bytearray *b* and return the number of + bytes read. Like :meth:`read`, multiple reads may be issued to the underlying raw - stream, unless the latter is 'interactive'. + stream, unless the latter is interactive. A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment. .. method:: write(b) - Write the given bytes or bytearray object, *b* and return the number - of bytes written (never less than ``len(b)``, since if the write fails - an :exc:`IOError` will be raised). Depending on the actual - implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the underlying - stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency reasons. + Write the given :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` object, *b* and + return the number of bytes written (never less than ``len(b)``, since if + the write fails an :exc:`OSError` will be raised). Depending on the + actual implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the + underlying stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency + reasons. When in non-blocking mode, a :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the data needed to be written to the raw stream but it couldn't accept @@ -466,7 +468,7 @@ I/O Base Classes Raw File I/O ^^^^^^^^^^^^ -.. class:: FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True) +.. class:: FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None) :class:`FileIO` represents an OS-level file containing bytes data. It implements the :class:`RawIOBase` interface (and therefore the @@ -474,22 +476,35 @@ Raw File I/O The *name* can be one of two things: - * a character string or bytes object representing the path to the file - which will be opened; + * a character string or :class:`bytes` object representing the path to the + file which will be opened; * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level file descriptor to which the resulting :class:`FileIO` object will give access. - The *mode* can be ``'r'``, ``'w'`` or ``'a'`` for reading (default), writing, - or appending. The file will be created if it doesn't exist when opened for - writing or appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing. Add a + The *mode* can be ``'r'``, ``'w'``, ``'x'`` or ``'a'`` for reading + (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending. The file will be + created if it doesn't exist when opened for writing or appending; it will be + truncated when opened for writing. :exc:`FileExistsError` will be raised if + it already exists when opened for creating. Opening a file for creating + implies writing, so this mode behaves in a similar way to ``'w'``. Add a ``'+'`` to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing. The :meth:`read` (when called with a positive argument), :meth:`readinto` and :meth:`write` methods on this class will only make one system call. + A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying + file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with + (*name*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing + :mod:`os.open` as *opener* results in functionality similar to passing + ``None``). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *opener* parameter was added. + The ``'x'`` mode was added. + In addition to the attributes and methods from :class:`IOBase` and :class:`RawIOBase`, :class:`FileIO` provides the following data - attributes and methods: + attributes: .. attribute:: mode @@ -537,7 +552,7 @@ than raw I/O does. .. method:: getvalue() - Return ``bytes`` containing the entire contents of the buffer. + Return :class:`bytes` containing the entire contents of the buffer. .. method:: read1() @@ -581,7 +596,7 @@ than raw I/O does. A buffer providing higher-level access to a writeable, sequential :class:`RawIOBase` object. It inherits :class:`BufferedIOBase`. - When writing to this object, data is normally held into an internal + When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an internal buffer. The buffer will be written out to the underlying :class:`RawIOBase` object under various conditions, including: @@ -594,8 +609,6 @@ than raw I/O does. *raw* stream. If the *buffer_size* is not given, it defaults to :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`. - A third argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and deprecated. - :class:`BufferedWriter` provides or overrides these methods in addition to those from :class:`BufferedIOBase` and :class:`IOBase`: @@ -606,9 +619,10 @@ than raw I/O does. .. method:: write(b) - Write the bytes or bytearray object, *b* and return the number of bytes - written. When in non-blocking mode, a :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised - if the buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks. + Write the :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` object, *b* and return the + number of bytes written. When in non-blocking mode, a + :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but + the raw stream blocks. .. class:: BufferedRandom(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE) @@ -621,8 +635,6 @@ than raw I/O does. in the first argument. If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`. - A third argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and deprecated. - :class:`BufferedRandom` is capable of anything :class:`BufferedReader` or :class:`BufferedWriter` can do. @@ -637,9 +649,6 @@ than raw I/O does. writeable respectively. If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to :data:`DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE`. - A fourth argument, *max_buffer_size*, is supported, but unused and - deprecated. - :class:`BufferedRWPair` implements all of :class:`BufferedIOBase`\'s methods except for :meth:`~BufferedIOBase.detach`, which raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation`. @@ -682,7 +691,7 @@ Text I/O The underlying binary buffer (a :class:`BufferedIOBase` instance) that :class:`TextIOBase` deals with. This is not part of the - :class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist on some implementations. + :class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist in some implementations. .. method:: detach() @@ -742,13 +751,15 @@ Text I/O written. -.. class:: TextIOWrapper(buffer, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, line_buffering=False) +.. class:: TextIOWrapper(buffer, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, \ + line_buffering=False, write_through=False) A buffered text stream over a :class:`BufferedIOBase` binary stream. It inherits :class:`TextIOBase`. *encoding* gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or - encoded with. It defaults to :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`. + encoded with. It defaults to + :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>`. *errors* is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding errors are to be handled. Pass ``'strict'`` to raise a :exc:`ValueError` @@ -785,6 +796,19 @@ Text I/O If *line_buffering* is ``True``, :meth:`flush` is implied when a call to write contains a newline character. + If *write_through* is ``True``, calls to :meth:`write` are guaranteed + not to be buffered: any data written on the :class:`TextIOWrapper` + object is immediately handled to its underlying binary *buffer*. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *write_through* argument has been added. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The default *encoding* is now ``locale.getpreferredencoding(False)`` + instead of ``locale.getpreferredencoding()``. Don't change temporary the + locale encoding using :func:`locale.setlocale`, use the current locale + encoding instead of the user preferred encoding. + :class:`TextIOWrapper` provides one attribute in addition to those of :class:`TextIOBase` and its parents: @@ -851,8 +875,8 @@ operating system's unbuffered I/O routines. The gain depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed. For example, on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers predictable performance regardless of the platform -and the backing device. Therefore, it is most always preferable to use buffered -I/O rather than unbuffered I/O for binary datal +and the backing device. Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use +buffered I/O rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data. Text I/O ^^^^^^^^ @@ -887,8 +911,8 @@ Binary buffered objects (instances of :class:`BufferedReader`, :class:`BufferedWriter`, :class:`BufferedRandom` and :class:`BufferedRWPair`) are not reentrant. While reentrant calls will not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a :mod:`signal` handler. If a thread tries to -renter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is -raised. Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the +re-enter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a :exc:`RuntimeError` +is raised. Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the buffered object. The above implicitly extends to text files, since the :func:`open()` function diff --git a/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst b/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1046828 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst @@ -0,0 +1,797 @@ +:mod:`ipaddress` --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library +=================================================== + +.. module:: ipaddress + :synopsis: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library. +.. moduleauthor:: Peter Moody + +**Source code:** :source:`Lib/ipaddress.py` + +-------------- + +.. note:: + + The ``ipaddress`` module has been included in the standard library on a + :term:`provisional basis <provisional package>`. Backwards incompatible + changes (up to and including removal of the package) may occur if deemed + necessary by the core developers. + +:mod:`ipaddress` provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and +operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks. + +The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to handle +various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether or not two +hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a particular +subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid IP address or +network definition, and so on. + +This is the full module API reference - for an overview and introduction, +see :ref:`ipaddress-howto`. + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +Convenience factory functions +----------------------------- + +The :mod:`ipaddress` module provides factory functions to conveniently create +IP addresses, networks and interfaces: + +.. function:: ip_address(address) + + Return an :class:`IPv4Address` or :class:`IPv6Address` object depending on + the IP address passed as argument. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be + supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. + A :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4 or + IPv6 address. + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1') + IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') + >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::') + IPv6Address('2001:db8::') + + +.. function:: ip_network(address, strict=True) + + Return an :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` object depending on + the IP address passed as argument. *address* is a string or integer + representing the IP network. Either IPv4 or IPv6 networks may be supplied; + integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. *strict* + is passed to :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` constructor. A + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4 or + IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set. + + >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28') + IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28') + + +.. function:: ip_interface(address) + + Return an :class:`IPv4Interface` or :class:`IPv6Interface` object depending + on the IP address passed as argument. *address* is a string or integer + representing the IP address. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; + integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. A + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *address* does not represent a valid IPv4 or + IPv6 address. + +One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle both +IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal +information on the precise error, as the functions don't know whether the +IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended. More detailed error reporting can be +obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class constructors +directly. + + +IP Addresses +------------ + +Address objects +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The :class:`IPv4Address` and :class:`IPv6Address` objects share a lot of common +attributes. Some attributes that are only meaningful for IPv6 addresses are +also implemented by :class:`IPv4Address` objects, in order to make it easier to +write code that handles both IP versions correctly. + +.. class:: IPv4Address(address) + + Construct an IPv4 address. An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if + *address* is not a valid IPv4 address. + + The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address: + + 1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal integers in + the inclusive range 0-255, separated by dots (e.g. ``192.168.0.1``). Each + integer represents an octet (byte) in the address. Leading zeroes are + tolerated only for values less then 8 (as there is no ambiguity + between the decimal and octal interpretations of such strings). + 2. An integer that fits into 32 bits. + 3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 4 (most + significant octet first). + + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') + IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3221225985) + IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') + >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01') + IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') + + .. attribute:: version + + The appropriate version number: ``4`` for IPv4, ``6`` for IPv6. + + .. attribute:: max_prefixlen + + The total number of bits in the address representation for this + version: ``32`` for IPv4, ``128`` for IPv6. + + The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an address that + are compared to determine whether or not an address is part of a + network. + + .. attribute:: compressed + .. attribute:: exploded + + The string representation in dotted decimal notation. Leading zeroes + are never included in the representation. + + As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses with octets + set to zero, these two attributes are always the same as ``str(addr)`` + for IPv4 addresses. Exposing these attributes makes it easier to + write display code that can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. + + .. attribute:: packed + + The binary representation of this address - a :class:`bytes` object of + the appropriate length (most significant octet first). This is 4 bytes + for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6. + + .. attribute:: is_multicast + + ``True`` if the address is reserved for multicast use. See + :RFC:`3171` (for IPv4) or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6). + + .. attribute:: is_private + + ``True`` if the address is allocated for private networks. See + :RFC:`1918` (for IPv4) or :RFC:`4193` (for IPv6). + + .. attribute:: is_unspecified + + ``True`` if the address is unspecified. See :RFC:`5375` (for IPv4) + or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6). + + .. attribute:: is_reserved + + ``True`` if the address is otherwise IETF reserved. + + .. attribute:: is_loopback + + ``True`` if this is a loopback address. See :RFC:`3330` (for IPv4) + or :RFC:`2373` (for IPv6). + + .. attribute:: is_link_local + + ``True`` if the address is reserved for link-local usage. See + :RFC:`3927`. + + +.. class:: IPv6Address(address) + + Construct an IPv6 address. An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if + *address* is not a valid IPv6 address. + + The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address: + + 1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each + group representing 16 bits. The groups are separated by colons. + This describes an *exploded* (longhand) notation. The string can + also be *compressed* (shorthand notation) by various means. See + :RFC:`4291` for details. For example, + ``"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"`` can be compressed to + ``"::abc:7:def"``. + 2. An integer that fits into 128 bits. + 3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 16, big-endian. + + >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') + IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') + + .. attribute:: compressed + + The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes in + groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting entirely of + zeroes collapsed to a single empty group. + + This is also the value returned by ``str(addr)`` for IPv6 addresses. + + .. attribute:: exploded + + The long form of the address representation, with all leading zeroes and + groups consisting entirely of zeroes included. + + .. attribute:: packed + .. attribute:: version + .. attribute:: max_prefixlen + .. attribute:: is_multicast + .. attribute:: is_private + .. attribute:: is_unspecified + .. attribute:: is_reserved + .. attribute:: is_loopback + .. attribute:: is_link_local + + Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in + :class:`IPv4Address` + + .. attribute:: is_site_local + + ``True`` if the address is reserved for site-local usage. Note that + the site-local address space has been deprecated by :RFC:`3879`. Use + :attr:`~IPv4Address.is_private` to test if this address is in the + space of unique local addresses as defined by :RFC:`4193`. + + .. attribute:: ipv4_mapped + + For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses (starting with + ``::FFFF/96``), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address. + For any other address, this property will be ``None``. + + .. attribute:: sixtofour + + For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses (starting with + ``2002::/16``) as defined by :RFC:`3056`, this property will report + the embedded IPv4 address. For any other address, this property will + be ``None``. + + .. attribute:: teredo + + For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting with + ``2001::/32``) as defined by :RFC:`4380`, this property will report + the embedded ``(server, client)`` IP address pair. For any other + address, this property will be ``None``. + + +Conversion to Strings and Integers +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module, +addresses must be converted to strings or integers. This is handled using +the :func:`str` and :func:`int` builtin functions:: + + >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) + '192.168.0.1' + >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) + 3232235521 + >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) + '::1' + >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) + 1 + + +Operators +^^^^^^^^^ + +Address objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can +only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with +IPv6). + + +Logical operators +""""""""""""""""" + +Address objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators. Some +examples:: + + >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') + True + >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') + False + >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') + True + + +Arithmetic operators +"""""""""""""""""""" + +Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects. Some examples:: + + >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3 + IPv4Address('127.0.0.5') + >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3 + IPv4Address('126.255.255.255') + >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1 + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address + + +IP Network definitions +---------------------- + +The :class:`IPv4Network` and :class:`IPv6Network` objects provide a mechanism +for defining and inspecting IP network definitions. A network definition +consists of a *mask* and a *network address*, and as such defines a range of +IP addresses that equal the network address when masked (binary AND) with the +mask. For example, a network definition with the mask ``255.255.255.0`` and +the network address ``192.168.1.0`` consists of IP addresses in the inclusive +range ``192.168.1.0`` to ``192.168.1.255``. + + +Prefix, net mask and host mask +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks. A *prefix* +``/<nbits>`` is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits are set in +the network mask. A *net mask* is an IP address with some number of +high-order bits set. Thus the prefix ``/24`` is equivalent to the net mask +``255.255.255.0`` in IPv4, or ``ffff:ff00::`` in IPv6. In addition, a +*host mask* is the logical inverse of a *net mask*, and is sometimes used +(for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a network mask. The +host mask equivalent to ``/24`` in IPv4 is ``0.0.0.255``. + + +Network objects +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network +objects as well. In addition, network objects implement additional attributes. +All of these are common between :class:`IPv4Network` and :class:`IPv6Network`, +so to avoid duplication they are only documented for :class:`IPv4Network`. + +.. class:: IPv4Network(address, strict=True) + + Construct an IPv4 network definition. *address* can be one of the following: + + 1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by + a slash (``/``). The IP address is the network address, and the mask + can be either a single number, which means it's a *prefix*, or a string + representation of an IPv4 address. If it's the latter, the mask is + interpreted as a *net mask* if it starts with a non-zero field, or as + a *host mask* if it starts with a zero field. If no mask is provided, + it's considered to be ``/32``. + + For example, the following *address* specifications are equivalent: + ``192.168.1.0/24``, ``192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0`` and + ``192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255``. + + 2. An integer that fits into 32 bits. This is equivalent to a + single-address network, with the network address being *address* and + the mask being ``/32``. + + 3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 4, big-endian. + The interpretation is similar to an integer *address*. + + An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if *address* is not a valid IPv4 + address. A :exc:`NetmaskValueError` is raised if the mask is not valid for + an IPv4 address. + + If *strict* is ``True`` and host bits are set in the supplied address, + then :exc:`ValueError` is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out + to determine the appropriate network address. + + Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other network/address + objects will raise :exc:`TypeError` if the argument's IP version is + incompatible to ``self`` + + .. attribute:: version + .. attribute:: max_prefixlen + + Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in + :class:`IPv4Address` + + .. attribute:: is_multicast + .. attribute:: is_private + .. attribute:: is_unspecified + .. attribute:: is_reserved + .. attribute:: is_loopback + .. attribute:: is_link_local + + These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they are true + true for both the network address and the broadcast address + + .. attribute:: network_address + + The network address for the network. The network address and the + prefix length together uniquely define a network. + + .. attribute:: broadcast_address + + The broadcast address for the network. Packets sent to the broadcast + address should be received by every host on the network. + + .. attribute:: host mask + + The host mask, as a string. + + .. attribute:: with_prefixlen + .. attribute:: compressed + .. attribute:: exploded + + A string representation of the network, with the mask in prefix + notation. + + ``with_prefixlen`` and ``compressed`` are always the same as + ``str(network)``. + ``exploded`` uses the exploded form the network address. + + .. attribute:: with_netmask + + A string representation of the network, with the mask in net mask + notation. + + .. attribute:: with_hostmask + + A string representation of the network, with the mask in host mask + notation. + + .. attribute:: num_addresses + + The total number of addresses in the network. + + .. attribute:: prefixlen + + Length of the network prefix, in bits. + + .. method:: hosts() + + Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network. The usable + hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the + network address itself and the network broadcast address. + + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts()) + [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'), + IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'), + IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')] + + .. method:: overlaps(other) + + ``True`` if this network is partly or wholly contained in *other* or + or *other* is wholly contained in this network. + + .. method:: address_exclude(network) + + Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the given + *network* from this one. Returns an iterator of network objects. + Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *network* is not completely contained in + this network. + + >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28') + >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32') + >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2)) + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'), + IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')] + + .. method:: subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) + + The subnets that join to make the current network definition, depending + on the argument values. *prefixlen_diff* is the amount our prefix + length should be increased by. *new_prefix* is the desired new + prefix of the subnets; it must be larger than our prefix. One and + only one of *prefixlen_diff* and *new_prefix* must be set. Returns an + iterator of network objects. + + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets()) + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')] + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2)) + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'), + IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')] + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26)) + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'), + IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')] + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23)) + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer') + ValueError: new prefix must be longer + >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25)) + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')] + + .. method:: supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) + + The supernet containing this network definition, depending on the + argument values. *prefixlen_diff* is the amount our prefix length + should be decreased by. *new_prefix* is the desired new prefix of + the supernet; it must be smaller than our prefix. One and only one + of *prefixlen_diff* and *new_prefix* must be set. Returns a single + network object. + + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet() + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23') + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2) + IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22') + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20) + IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20') + + .. method:: compare_networks(other) + + Compare this network to *other*. In this comparison only the network + addresses are considered; host bits aren't. Returns either ``-1``, + ``0`` or ``1``. + + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32')) + -1 + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32')) + 1 + >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')) + 0 + + +.. class:: IPv6Network(address, strict=True) + + Construct an IPv6 network definition. *address* can be one of the following: + + 1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by + a slash (``/``). The IP address is the network address, and the mask + can be either a single number, which means it's a *prefix*, or a string + representation of an IPv6 address. If it's the latter, the mask is + interpreted as a *net mask*. If no mask is provided, it's considered to + be ``/128``. + + For example, the following *address* specifications are equivalent: + ``2001:db00::0/24`` and ``2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::``. + + 2. An integer that fits into 128 bits. This is equivalent to a + single-address network, with the network address being *address* and + the mask being ``/128``. + + 3. An integer packed into a :class:`bytes` object of length 16, bit-endian. + The interpretation is similar to an integer *address*. + + An :exc:`AddressValueError` is raised if *address* is not a valid IPv6 + address. A :exc:`NetmaskValueError` is raised if the mask is not valid for + an IPv6 address. + + If *strict* is ``True`` and host bits are set in the supplied address, + then :exc:`ValueError` is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out + to determine the appropriate network address. + + .. attribute:: version + .. attribute:: max_prefixlen + .. attribute:: is_multicast + .. attribute:: is_private + .. attribute:: is_unspecified + .. attribute:: is_reserved + .. attribute:: is_loopback + .. attribute:: is_link_local + .. attribute:: network_address + .. attribute:: broadcast_address + .. attribute:: host mask + .. attribute:: with_prefixlen + .. attribute:: compressed + .. attribute:: exploded + .. attribute:: with_netmask + .. attribute:: with_hostmask + .. attribute:: num_addresses + .. attribute:: prefixlen + .. method:: hosts() + .. method:: overlaps(other) + .. method:: address_exclude(network) + .. method:: subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) + .. method:: supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) + .. method:: compare_networks(other) + + Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in + :class:`IPv4Network` + + .. attribute:: is_site_local + + These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is true + true for both the network address and the broadcast address + + +Operators +^^^^^^^^^ + +Network objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can +only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with +IPv6). + + +Logical operators +""""""""""""""""" + +Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators, +similarly to address objects. + + +Iteration +""""""""" + +Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to the +network. For iteration, *all* hosts are returned, including unusable hosts +(for usable hosts, use the :meth:`~IPv4Network.hosts` method). An +example:: + + >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'): + ... addr + ... + IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.2') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.3') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.4') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.5') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.7') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.8') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.9') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.10') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.11') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.12') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.13') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.14') + IPv4Address('192.0.2.15') + + +Networks as containers of addresses +""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" + +Network objects can act as containers of addresses. Some examples:: + + >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0] + IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') + >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15] + IPv4Address('192.0.2.15') + >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28') + True + >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28') + False + + +Interface objects +----------------- + +.. class:: IPv4Interface(address) + + Construct an IPv4 interface. The meaning of *address* is as in the + constructor of :class:`IPv4Network`, except that arbitrary host addresses + are always accepted. + + :class:`IPv4Interface` is a subclass of :class:`IPv4Address`, so it inherits + all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes + are available: + + .. attribute:: ip + + The address (:class:`IPv4Address`) without network information. + + >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') + >>> interface.ip + IPv4Address('192.0.2.5') + + .. attribute:: network + + The network (:class:`IPv4Network`) this interface belongs to. + + >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') + >>> interface.network + IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') + + .. attribute:: with_prefixlen + + A string representation of the interface with the mask in prefix notation. + + >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') + >>> interface.with_prefixlen + '192.0.2.5/24' + + .. attribute:: with_netmask + + A string representation of the interface with the network as a net mask. + + >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') + >>> interface.with_netmask + '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0' + + .. attribute:: with_hostmask + + A string representation of the interface with the network as a host mask. + + >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') + >>> interface.with_hostmask + '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255' + + +.. class:: IPv6Interface(address) + + Construct an IPv6 interface. The meaning of *address* is as in the + constructor of :class:`IPv6Network`, except that arbitrary host addresses + are always accepted. + + :class:`IPv6Interface` is a subclass of :class:`IPv6Address`, so it inherits + all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes + are available: + + .. attribute:: ip + .. attribute:: network + .. attribute:: with_prefixlen + .. attribute:: with_netmask + .. attribute:: with_hostmask + + Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in + :class:`IPv4Interface`. + + +Other Module Level Functions +---------------------------- + +The module also provides the following module level functions: + +.. function:: v4_int_to_packed(address) + + Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. + *address* is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP address. A + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an + IPv4 IP address. + + >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985) + IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') + >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985) + b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01' + + +.. function:: v6_int_to_packed(address) + + Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. + *address* is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP address. A + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an + IPv6 IP address. + + +.. function:: summarize_address_range(first, last) + + Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first and last + IP addresses. *first* is the first :class:`IPv4Address` or + :class:`IPv6Address` in the range and *last* is the last :class:`IPv4Address` + or :class:`IPv6Address` in the range. A :exc:`TypeError` is raised if + *first* or *last* are not IP addresses or are not of the same version. A + :exc:`ValueError` is raised if *last* is not greater than *first* or if + *first* address version is not 4 or 6. + + >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range( + ... ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), + ... ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))] + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')] + + +.. function:: collapse_addresses(addresses) + + Return an iterator of the collapsed :class:`IPv4Network` or + :class:`IPv6Network` objects. *addresses* is an iterator of + :class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` objects. A :exc:`TypeError` is + raised if *addresses* contains mixed version objects. + + >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in + ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), + ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])] + [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')] + + +.. function:: get_mixed_type_key(obj) + + Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses. Address + and Network objects are not sortable by default; they're fundamentally + different, so the expression:: + + IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') + + doesn't make sense. There are some times however, where you may wish to + have :mod:`ipaddress` sort these anyway. If you need to do this, you can use + this function as the ``key`` argument to :func:`sorted()`. + + *obj* is either a network or address object. + + +Custom Exceptions +----------------- + +To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the +module defines the following exceptions: + +.. exception:: AddressValueError(ValueError) + + Any value error related to the address. + + +.. exception:: NetmaskValueError(ValueError) + + Any value error related to the netmask. diff --git a/Doc/library/ipc.rst b/Doc/library/ipc.rst index c873065..91ec693 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ipc.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ipc.rst @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for different processes to communicate. Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine, e.g. -:mod:`signal` and :mod:`subprocess`. Other modules support networking protocols +:mod:`signal` and :mod:`mmap`. Other modules support networking protocols that two or more processes can used to communicate across machines. The list of modules described in this chapter is: @@ -16,9 +16,9 @@ The list of modules described in this chapter is: .. toctree:: - subprocess.rst socket.rst ssl.rst - signal.rst asyncore.rst asynchat.rst + signal.rst + mmap.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/itertools.rst b/Doc/library/itertools.rst index 308f925..1eb554a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/itertools.rst +++ b/Doc/library/itertools.rst @@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ Iterator Arguments Results ==================== ============================ ================================================= ============================================================= Iterator Arguments Results Example ==================== ============================ ================================================= ============================================================= -:func:`accumulate` p p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ... ``accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --> 1 3 6 10 15`` +:func:`accumulate` p [,func] p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ... ``accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --> 1 3 6 10 15`` :func:`chain` p, q, ... p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ... ``chain('ABC', 'DEF') --> A B C D E F`` :func:`compress` data, selectors (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ... ``compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) --> A C E F`` :func:`dropwhile` pred, seq seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when pred fails ``dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) --> 6 4 1`` @@ -84,23 +84,61 @@ The following module functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or loops that truncate the stream. -.. function:: accumulate(iterable) +.. function:: accumulate(iterable[, func]) Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums. Elements may be any addable - type including :class:`Decimal` or :class:`Fraction`. Equivalent to:: + type including :class:`Decimal` or :class:`Fraction`. If the optional + *func* argument is supplied, it should be a function of two arguments + and it will be used instead of addition. - def accumulate(iterable): + Equivalent to:: + + def accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add): 'Return running totals' # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) --> 1 3 6 10 15 + # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) --> 1 2 6 24 120 it = iter(iterable) total = next(it) yield total for element in it: - total = total + element + total = func(total, element) yield total + There are a number of uses for the *func* argument. It can be set to + :func:`min` for a running minimum, :func:`max` for a running maximum, or + :func:`operator.mul` for a running product. Amortization tables can be + built by accumulating interest and applying payments. First-order + `recurrence relations <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation>`_ + can be modeled by supplying the initial value in the iterable and using only + the accumulated total in *func* argument:: + + >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8] + >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul)) # running product + [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0] + >>> list(accumulate(data, max)) # running maximum + [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9] + + # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 4 annual payments of 90 + >>> cashflows = [1000, -90, -90, -90, -90] + >>> list(accumulate(cashflows, lambda bal, pmt: bal*1.05 + pmt)) + [1000, 960.0, 918.0, 873.9000000000001, 827.5950000000001] + + # Chaotic recurrence relation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map + >>> logistic_map = lambda x, _: r * x * (1 - x) + >>> r = 3.8 + >>> x0 = 0.4 + >>> inputs = repeat(x0, 36) # only the initial value is used + >>> [format(x, '.2f') for x in accumulate(inputs, logistic_map)] + ['0.40', '0.91', '0.30', '0.81', '0.60', '0.92', '0.29', '0.79', '0.63', + '0.88' ,'0.39', '0.90', '0.33', '0.84', '0.52', '0.95', '0.18', '0.57', + '0.93', '0.25', '0.71', '0.79', '0.63', '0.88', '0.39', '0.91', '0.32', + '0.83', '0.54', '0.95', '0.20', '0.60', '0.91', '0.30', '0.80', '0.60'] + .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the optional *func* parameter. + .. function:: chain(*iterables) Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is @@ -668,7 +706,8 @@ which incur interpreter overhead. return zip(a, b) def grouper(n, iterable, fillvalue=None): - "grouper(3, 'ABCDEFG', 'x') --> ABC DEF Gxx" + "Collect data into fixed-length chunks or blocks" + # grouper(3, 'ABCDEFG', 'x') --> ABC DEF Gxx" args = [iter(iterable)] * n return zip_longest(*args, fillvalue=fillvalue) diff --git a/Doc/library/locale.rst b/Doc/library/locale.rst index 45aba0a..d46f1cf 100644 --- a/Doc/library/locale.rst +++ b/Doc/library/locale.rst @@ -475,8 +475,11 @@ in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core dumps. This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly. Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ``C`` locale, no matter -what the user's preferred locale is. The program must explicitly say that it -wants the user's preferred locale settings by calling ``setlocale(LC_ALL, '')``. +what the user's preferred locale is. There is one exception: the +:data:`LC_CTYPE` category is changed at startup to set the current locale +encoding to the user's preferred locale encoding. The program must explicitly +say that it wants the user's preferred locale settings for other categories by +calling ``setlocale(LC_ALL, '')``. It is generally a bad idea to call :func:`setlocale` in some library routine, since as a side effect it affects the entire program. Saving and restoring it diff --git a/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst b/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst index ef65cfa..537b8c7 100644 --- a/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst +++ b/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst @@ -164,6 +164,87 @@ this value. changed. If it has, the existing stream is flushed and closed and the file opened again, before outputting the record to the file. +.. _base-rotating-handler: + +BaseRotatingHandler +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The :class:`BaseRotatingHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` +module, is the base class for the rotating file handlers, +:class:`RotatingFileHandler` and :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler`. You should +not need to instantiate this class, but it has attributes and methods you may +need to override. + +.. class:: BaseRotatingHandler(filename, mode, encoding=None, delay=False) + + The parameters are as for :class:`FileHandler`. The attributes are: + + .. attribute:: namer + + If this attribute is set to a callable, the :meth:`rotation_filename` + method delegates to this callable. The parameters passed to the callable + are those passed to :meth:`rotation_filename`. + + .. note:: The namer function is called quite a few times during rollover, + so it should be as simple and as fast as possible. It should also + return the same output every time for a given input, otherwise the + rollover behaviour may not work as expected. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + + .. attribute:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotator + + If this attribute is set to a callable, the :meth:`rotate` method + delegates to this callable. The parameters passed to the callable are + those passed to :meth:`rotate`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotation_filename(default_name) + + Modify the filename of a log file when rotating. + + This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided. + + The default implementation calls the 'namer' attribute of the handler, + if it's callable, passing the default name to it. If the attribute isn't + callable (the default is ``None``), the name is returned unchanged. + + :param default_name: The default name for the log file. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + + .. method:: BaseRotatingHandler.rotate(source, dest) + + When rotating, rotate the current log. + + The default implementation calls the 'rotator' attribute of the handler, + if it's callable, passing the source and dest arguments to it. If the + attribute isn't callable (the default is ``None``), the source is simply + renamed to the destination. + + :param source: The source filename. This is normally the base + filename, e.g. 'test.log' + :param dest: The destination filename. This is normally + what the source is rotated to, e.g. 'test.log.1'. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you can use +the same callables for instances of :class:`RotatingFileHandler` and +:class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler`. If either the namer or rotator callable +raises an exception, this will be handled in the same way as any other +exception during an :meth:`emit` call, i.e. via the :meth:`handleError` method +of the handler. + +If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you can +override the methods. + +For an example, see :ref:`cookbook-rotator-namer`. + + .. _rotating-file-handler: RotatingFileHandler @@ -452,6 +533,15 @@ supports sending logging messages to a remote or local Unix syslog. behaviour) but can be set to ``False`` on a ``SysLogHandler`` instance in order for that instance to *not* append the NUL terminator. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + (See: :issue:`12419`.) In earlier versions, there was no facility for + an "ident" or "tag" prefix to identify the source of the message. This + can now be specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to + ``""`` to preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on + a ``SysLogHandler`` instance in order for that instance to prepend + the ident to every message handled. Note that the provided ident must + be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message exactly as is. + .. method:: encodePriority(facility, priority) Encodes the facility and priority into an integer. You can pass in strings @@ -614,7 +704,7 @@ The :class:`SMTPHandler` class, located in the :mod:`logging.handlers` module, supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP. -.. class:: SMTPHandler(mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs, subject, credentials=None, secure=None) +.. class:: SMTPHandler(mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs, subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0) Returns a new instance of the :class:`SMTPHandler` class. The instance is initialized with the from and to addresses and subject line of the email. The @@ -630,6 +720,12 @@ supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP. and certificate file. (This tuple is passed to the :meth:`smtplib.SMTP.starttls` method.) + A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server using the + *timeout* argument. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *timeout* argument was added. + .. method:: emit(record) Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees. @@ -690,7 +786,7 @@ should, then :meth:`flush` is expected to do the flushing. .. method:: close() - Calls :meth:`flush`, sets the target to :const:`None` and clears the + Calls :meth:`flush`, sets the target to ``None`` and clears the buffer. @@ -859,6 +955,15 @@ possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via Note that if you don't call this before your application exits, there may be some records still left on the queue, which won't be processed. + .. method:: enqueue_sentinel() + + Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit. This + implementation uses ``put_nowait()``. You may want to override this + method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue + implementations. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. seealso:: diff --git a/Doc/library/logging.rst b/Doc/library/logging.rst index b6622e3..0d956b0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/logging.rst +++ b/Doc/library/logging.rst @@ -213,6 +213,9 @@ is the module's name in the Python package namespace. Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on this logger. The arguments are interpreted as for :meth:`debug`. + .. note:: There is an obsolete method ``warn`` which is functionally + identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use + it - use ``warning`` instead. .. method:: Logger.error(msg, *args, **kwargs) @@ -492,6 +495,19 @@ The useful mapping keys in a :class:`LogRecord` are given in the section on want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the ``converter`` attribute in the ``Formatter`` class. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Previously, the default ISO 8601 format was hard-coded as in this + example: ``2010-09-06 22:38:15,292`` where the part before the comma is + handled by a strptime format string (``'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'``), and the + part after the comma is a millisecond value. Because strptime does not + have a format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is + appended using another format string, ``'%s,%03d'`` – and both of these + format strings have been hardcoded into this method. With the change, + these strings are defined as class-level attributes which can be + overridden at the instance level when desired. The names of the + attributes are ``default_time_format`` (for the strptime format string) + and ``default_msec_format`` (for appending the millisecond value). + .. method:: formatException(exc_info) Formats the specified exception information (a standard exception tuple as @@ -901,8 +917,12 @@ functions. .. function:: warning(msg, *args, **kwargs) - Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on the root logger. The arguments are - interpreted as for :func:`debug`. + Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on the root logger. The arguments + are interpreted as for :func:`debug`. + + .. note:: There is an obsolete function ``warn`` which is functionally + identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use + it - use ``warning`` instead. .. function:: error(msg, *args, **kwargs) @@ -1028,12 +1048,27 @@ functions. | ``stream`` | Use the specified stream to initialize the | | | StreamHandler. Note that this argument is | | | incompatible with 'filename' - if both are | - | | present, 'stream' is ignored. | + | | present, a ``ValueError`` is raised. | + +--------------+---------------------------------------------+ + | ``handlers`` | If specified, this should be an iterable of | + | | already created handlers to add to the root | + | | logger. Any handlers which don't already | + | | have a formatter set will be assigned the | + | | default formatter created in this function. | + | | Note that this argument is incompatible | + | | with 'filename' or 'stream' - if both are | + | | present, a ``ValueError`` is raised. | +--------------+---------------------------------------------+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2 The ``style`` argument was added. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The ``handlers`` argument was added. Additional checks were added to + catch situations where incompatible arguments are specified (e.g. + ``handlers`` together with ``stream`` or ``filename``, or ``stream`` + together with ``filename``). + .. function:: shutdown() diff --git a/Doc/library/lzma.rst b/Doc/library/lzma.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..402fae2 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/lzma.rst @@ -0,0 +1,382 @@ +:mod:`lzma` --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm +==================================================== + +.. module:: lzma + :synopsis: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library. +.. moduleauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com> +.. sectionauthor:: Nadeem Vawda <nadeem.vawda@gmail.com> + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing and +decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm. Also included is a file +interface supporting the ``.xz`` and legacy ``.lzma`` file formats used by the +:program:`xz` utility, as well as raw compressed streams. + +The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the :mod:`bz2` +module. However, note that :class:`LZMAFile` is *not* thread-safe, unlike +:class:`bz2.BZ2File`, so if you need to use a single :class:`LZMAFile` instance +from multiple threads, it is necessary to protect it with a lock. + + +.. exception:: LZMAError + + This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or + decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor state. + + +Reading and writing compressed files +------------------------------------ + +.. function:: open(filename, mode="rb", \*, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None) + + Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a :term:`file + object`. + + The *filename* argument can be either an actual file name (given as a + :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object), in which case the named file is + opened, or it can be an existing file object to read from or write to. + + The *mode* argument can be any of ``"r"``, ``"rb"``, ``"w"``, ``"wb"``, + ``"a"`` or ``"ab"`` for binary mode, or ``"rt"``, ``"wt"``, or ``"at"`` for + text mode. The default is ``"rb"``. + + When opening a file for reading, the *format* and *filters* arguments have + the same meanings as for :class:`LZMADecompressor`. In this case, the *check* + and *preset* arguments should not be used. + + When opening a file for writing, the *format*, *check*, *preset* and + *filters* arguments have the same meanings as for :class:`LZMACompressor`. + + For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the :class:`LZMAFile` + constructor: ``LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)``. In this case, the *encoding*, + *errors* and *newline* arguments must not be provided. + + For text mode, a :class:`LZMAFile` object is created, and wrapped in an + :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` instance with the specified encoding, error + handling behavior, and line ending(s). + + +.. class:: LZMAFile(filename=None, mode="r", \*, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None) + + Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode. + + An :class:`LZMAFile` can wrap an already-open :term:`file object`, or operate + directly on a named file. The *filename* argument specifies either the file + object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as a :class:`str` or + :class:`bytes` object). When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped + file will not be closed when the :class:`LZMAFile` is closed. + + The *mode* argument can be either ``"r"`` for reading (default), ``"w"`` for + overwriting, or ``"a"`` for appending. These can equivalently be given as + ``"rb"``, ``"wb"``, and ``"ab"`` respectively. + + If *filename* is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of + ``"w"`` does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to ``"a"``. + + When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the concatenation of + multiple separate compressed streams. These are transparently decoded as a + single logical stream. + + When opening a file for reading, the *format* and *filters* arguments have + the same meanings as for :class:`LZMADecompressor`. In this case, the *check* + and *preset* arguments should not be used. + + When opening a file for writing, the *format*, *check*, *preset* and + *filters* arguments have the same meanings as for :class:`LZMACompressor`. + + :class:`LZMAFile` supports all the members specified by + :class:`io.BufferedIOBase`, except for :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate`. + Iteration and the :keyword:`with` statement are supported. + + The following method is also provided: + + .. method:: peek(size=-1) + + Return buffered data without advancing the file position. At least one + byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been reached. The exact + number of bytes returned is unspecified (the *size* argument is ignored). + + +Compressing and decompressing data in memory +-------------------------------------------- + +.. class:: LZMACompressor(format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None) + + Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data incrementally. + + For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data, see + :func:`compress`. + + The *format* argument specifies what container format should be used. + Possible values are: + + * :const:`FORMAT_XZ`: The ``.xz`` container format. + This is the default format. + + * :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`: The legacy ``.lzma`` container format. + This format is more limited than ``.xz`` -- it does not support integrity + checks or multiple filters. + + * :const:`FORMAT_RAW`: A raw data stream, not using any container format. + This format specifier does not support integrity checks, and requires that + you always specify a custom filter chain (for both compression and + decompression). Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be + decompressed using :const:`FORMAT_AUTO` (see :class:`LZMADecompressor`). + + The *check* argument specifies the type of integrity check to include in the + compressed data. This check is used when decompressing, to ensure that the + data has not been corrupted. Possible values are: + + * :const:`CHECK_NONE`: No integrity check. + This is the default (and the only acceptable value) for + :const:`FORMAT_ALONE` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`. + + * :const:`CHECK_CRC32`: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check. + + * :const:`CHECK_CRC64`: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check. + This is the default for :const:`FORMAT_XZ`. + + * :const:`CHECK_SHA256`: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm. + + If the specified check is not supported, an :class:`LZMAError` is raised. + + The compression settings can be specified either as a preset compression + level (with the *preset* argument), or in detail as a custom filter chain + (with the *filters* argument). + + The *preset* argument (if provided) should be an integer between ``0`` and + ``9`` (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant + :const:`PRESET_EXTREME`. If neither *preset* nor *filters* are given, the + default behavior is to use :const:`PRESET_DEFAULT` (preset level ``6``). + Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression process + slower. + + .. note:: + + In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression with higher presets + also requires much more memory (and produces output that needs more memory + to decompress). With preset ``9`` for example, the overhead for an + :class:`LZMACompressor` object can be as high as 800MiB. For this reason, + it is generally best to stick with the default preset. + + The *filters* argument (if provided) should be a filter chain specifier. + See :ref:`filter-chain-specs` for details. + + .. method:: compress(data) + + Compress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning a :class:`bytes` + object containing compressed data for at least part of the input. Some of + *data* may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to + :meth:`compress` and :meth:`flush`. The returned data should be + concatenated with the output of any previous calls to :meth:`compress`. + + .. method:: flush() + + Finish the compression process, returning a :class:`bytes` object + containing any data stored in the compressor's internal buffers. + + The compressor cannot be used after this method has been called. + + +.. class:: LZMADecompressor(format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None) + + Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data + incrementally. + + For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed stream at + once, see :func:`decompress`. + + The *format* argument specifies the container format that should be used. The + default is :const:`FORMAT_AUTO`, which can decompress both ``.xz`` and + ``.lzma`` files. Other possible values are :const:`FORMAT_XZ`, + :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`, and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`. + + The *memlimit* argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount of memory + that the decompressor can use. When this argument is used, decompression will + fail with an :class:`LZMAError` if it is not possible to decompress the input + within the given memory limit. + + The *filters* argument specifies the filter chain that was used to create + the stream being decompressed. This argument is required if *format* is + :const:`FORMAT_RAW`, but should not be used for other formats. + See :ref:`filter-chain-specs` for more information about filter chains. + + .. note:: + This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple + compressed streams, unlike :func:`decompress` and :class:`LZMAFile`. To + decompress a multi-stream input with :class:`LZMADecompressor`, you must + create a new decompressor for each stream. + + .. method:: decompress(data) + + Decompress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning a :class:`bytes` + object containing the decompressed data for at least part of the input. + Some of *data* may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to + :meth:`decompress`. The returned data should be concatenated with the + output of any previous calls to :meth:`decompress`. + + .. attribute:: check + + The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream. This may be + :const:`CHECK_UNKNOWN` until enough of the input has been decoded to + determine what integrity check it uses. + + .. attribute:: eof + + True if the end-of-stream marker has been reached. + + .. attribute:: unused_data + + Data found after the end of the compressed stream. + + Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ``b""``. + + +.. function:: compress(data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None) + + Compress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning the compressed data as a + :class:`bytes` object. + + See :class:`LZMACompressor` above for a description of the *format*, *check*, + *preset* and *filters* arguments. + + +.. function:: decompress(data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None) + + Decompress *data* (a :class:`bytes` object), returning the uncompressed data + as a :class:`bytes` object. + + If *data* is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed streams, + decompress all of these streams, and return the concatenation of the results. + + See :class:`LZMADecompressor` above for a description of the *format*, + *memlimit* and *filters* arguments. + + +Miscellaneous +------------- + +.. function:: is_check_supported(check) + + Returns true if the given integrity check is supported on this system. + + :const:`CHECK_NONE` and :const:`CHECK_CRC32` are always supported. + :const:`CHECK_CRC64` and :const:`CHECK_SHA256` may be unavailable if you are + using a version of :program:`liblzma` that was compiled with a limited + feature set. + + +.. _filter-chain-specs: + +Specifying custom filter chains +------------------------------- + +A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each dictionary +contains the ID and options for a single filter. Each dictionary must contain +the key ``"id"``, and may contain additional keys to specify filter-dependent +options. Valid filter IDs are as follows: + +* Compression filters: + * :const:`FILTER_LZMA1` (for use with :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`) + * :const:`FILTER_LZMA2` (for use with :const:`FORMAT_XZ` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`) + +* Delta filter: + * :const:`FILTER_DELTA` + +* Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters: + * :const:`FILTER_X86` + * :const:`FILTER_IA64` + * :const:`FILTER_ARM` + * :const:`FILTER_ARMTHUMB` + * :const:`FILTER_POWERPC` + * :const:`FILTER_SPARC` + +A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty. The last +filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other filters must be +delta or BCJ filters. + +Compression filters support the following options (specified as additional +entries in the dictionary representing the filter): + + * ``preset``: A compression preset to use as a source of default values for + options that are not specified explicitly. + * ``dict_size``: Dictionary size in bytes. This should be between 4KiB and + 1.5GiB (inclusive). + * ``lc``: Number of literal context bits. + * ``lp``: Number of literal position bits. The sum ``lc + lp`` must be at + most 4. + * ``pb``: Number of position bits; must be at most 4. + * ``mode``: :const:`MODE_FAST` or :const:`MODE_NORMAL`. + * ``nice_len``: What should be considered a "nice length" for a match. + This should be 273 or less. + * ``mf``: What match finder to use -- :const:`MF_HC3`, :const:`MF_HC4`, + :const:`MF_BT2`, :const:`MF_BT3`, or :const:`MF_BT4`. + * ``depth``: Maximum search depth used by match finder. 0 (default) means to + select automatically based on other filter options. + +The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more repetitive +input for the compressor in certain circumstances. It only supports a single +The delta filter supports only one option, ``dist``. This indicates the distance +between bytes to be subtracted. The default is 1, i.e. take the differences +between adjacent bytes. + +The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code. They convert +relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute addressing, with +the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be exploited by the compressor. +These filters support one option, ``start_offset``. This specifies the address +that should be mapped to the beginning of the input data. The default is 0. + + +Examples +-------- + +Reading in a compressed file:: + + import lzma + with lzma.LZMAFile("file.xz") as f: + file_content = f.read() + +Creating a compressed file:: + + import lzma + data = b"Insert Data Here" + with lzma.LZMAFile("file.xz", "w") as f: + f.write(data) + +Compressing data in memory:: + + import lzma + data_in = b"Insert Data Here" + data_out = lzma.compress(data_in) + +Incremental compression:: + + import lzma + lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor() + out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n") + out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n") + out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n") + out4 = lzc.flush() + # Concatenate all the partial results: + result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4]) + +Writing compressed data to an already-open file:: + + import lzma + with open("file.xz", "wb") as f: + f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n") + with lzma.LZMAFile(f, "w") as lzf: + lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n") + f.write(b"Not compressed\n") + +Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain:: + + import lzma + my_filters = [ + {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5}, + {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME}, + ] + with lzma.LZMAFile("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f: + f.write(b"blah blah blah") diff --git a/Doc/library/math.rst b/Doc/library/math.rst index 98c5b33..62c0f34 100644 --- a/Doc/library/math.rst +++ b/Doc/library/math.rst @@ -184,6 +184,19 @@ Power and logarithmic functions result is calculated in a way which is accurate for *x* near zero. +.. function:: log2(x) + + Return the base-2 logarithm of *x*. This is usually more accurate than + ``log(x, 2)``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. seealso:: + + :meth:`int.bit_length` returns the number of bits necessary to represent + an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading zeros. + + .. function:: log10(x) Return the base-10 logarithm of *x*. This is usually more accurate diff --git a/Doc/library/mmap.rst b/Doc/library/mmap.rst index 5f0f004..1a19a7e 100644 --- a/Doc/library/mmap.rst +++ b/Doc/library/mmap.rst @@ -196,12 +196,16 @@ To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length move will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception. - .. method:: read(num) + .. method:: read([n]) - Return a :class:`bytes` containing up to *num* bytes starting from the - current file position; the file position is updated to point after the - bytes that were returned. + Return a :class:`bytes` containing up to *n* bytes starting from the + current file position. If the argument is omitted, *None* or negative, + return all bytes from the current file position to the end of the + mapping. The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were + returned. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Argument can be omitted or *None*. .. method:: read_byte() diff --git a/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst b/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst index 889a0c5..9d23720 100644 --- a/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst +++ b/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst @@ -20,6 +20,11 @@ api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where ever possible +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Operations in this module now raise :exc:`OSError` where :exc:`IOError` + was raised. + + .. _msvcrt-files: File Operations @@ -29,7 +34,7 @@ File Operations .. function:: locking(fd, mode, nbytes) Lock part of a file based on file descriptor *fd* from the C runtime. Raises - :exc:`IOError` on failure. The locked region of the file extends from the + :exc:`OSError` on failure. The locked region of the file extends from the current file position for *nbytes* bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file. *mode* must be one of the :const:`LK_\*` constants listed below. Multiple regions in a file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap. Adjacent @@ -41,13 +46,13 @@ File Operations Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, the program immediately tries again after 1 second. If, after 10 attempts, the bytes cannot - be locked, :exc:`IOError` is raised. + be locked, :exc:`OSError` is raised. .. data:: LK_NBLCK LK_NBRLCK - Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, :exc:`IOError` is + Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, :exc:`OSError` is raised. @@ -73,7 +78,7 @@ File Operations .. function:: get_osfhandle(fd) - Return the file handle for the file descriptor *fd*. Raises :exc:`IOError` if + Return the file handle for the file descriptor *fd*. Raises :exc:`OSError` if *fd* is not recognized. @@ -144,4 +149,4 @@ Other Functions .. function:: heapmin() Force the :c:func:`malloc` heap to clean itself up and return unused blocks to - the operating system. On failure, this raises :exc:`IOError`. + the operating system. On failure, this raises :exc:`OSError`. diff --git a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst index 4271fc2..616b7cd 100644 --- a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst +++ b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst @@ -121,9 +121,7 @@ processes: print(q.get()) # prints "[42, None, 'hello']" p.join() - Queues are thread and process safe, but note that they must never - be instantiated as a side effect of importing a module: this can lead - to a deadlock! (see :ref:`threaded-imports`) + Queues are thread and process safe. **Pipes** @@ -229,11 +227,11 @@ However, if you really do need to use some shared data then holds Python objects and allows other processes to manipulate them using proxies. - A manager returned by :func:`Manager` will support types :class:`list`, - :class:`dict`, :class:`Namespace`, :class:`Lock`, :class:`RLock`, - :class:`Semaphore`, :class:`BoundedSemaphore`, :class:`Condition`, - :class:`Event`, :class:`Queue`, :class:`Value` and :class:`Array`. For - example, :: + A manager returned by :func:`Manager` will support types + :class:`list`, :class:`dict`, :class:`Namespace`, :class:`Lock`, + :class:`RLock`, :class:`Semaphore`, :class:`BoundedSemaphore`, + :class:`Condition`, :class:`Event`, :class:`Barrier`, + :class:`Queue`, :class:`Value` and :class:`Array`. For example, :: from multiprocessing import Process, Manager @@ -244,17 +242,16 @@ However, if you really do need to use some shared data then l.reverse() if __name__ == '__main__': - manager = Manager() + with Manager() as manager: + d = manager.dict() + l = manager.list(range(10)) - d = manager.dict() - l = manager.list(range(10)) + p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l)) + p.start() + p.join() - p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l)) - p.start() - p.join() - - print(d) - print(l) + print(d) + print(l) will print :: @@ -282,10 +279,10 @@ For example:: return x*x if __name__ == '__main__': - pool = Pool(processes=4) # start 4 worker processes - result = pool.apply_async(f, [10]) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously - print(result.get(timeout=1)) # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow - print(pool.map(f, range(10))) # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]" + with Pool(processes=4) as pool # start 4 worker processes + result = pool.apply_async(f, [10]) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously + print(result.get(timeout=1)) # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow + print(pool.map(f, range(10))) # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]" Reference @@ -298,7 +295,8 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the :class:`Process` and exceptions ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -.. class:: Process(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}) +.. class:: Process(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, \ + *, daemon=None) Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate process. The :class:`Process` class has equivalents of all the methods of @@ -308,18 +306,22 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the should always be ``None``; it exists solely for compatibility with :class:`threading.Thread`. *target* is the callable object to be invoked by the :meth:`run()` method. It defaults to ``None``, meaning nothing is - called. *name* is the process name. By default, a unique name is constructed - of the form 'Process-N\ :sub:`1`:N\ :sub:`2`:...:N\ :sub:`k`' where N\ - :sub:`1`,N\ :sub:`2`,...,N\ :sub:`k` is a sequence of integers whose length - is determined by the *generation* of the process. *args* is the argument - tuple for the target invocation. *kwargs* is a dictionary of keyword - arguments for the target invocation. By default, no arguments are passed to - *target*. + called. *name* is the process name (see :attr:`name` for more details). + *args* is the argument tuple for the target invocation. *kwargs* is a + dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation. If provided, + the keyword-only *daemon* argument sets the process :attr:`daemon` flag + to ``True`` or ``False``. If ``None`` (the default), this flag will be + inherited from the creating process. + + By default, no arguments are passed to *target*. If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the base class constructor (:meth:`Process.__init__`) before doing anything else to the process. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *daemon* argument. + .. method:: run() Method representing the process's activity. @@ -338,10 +340,9 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the .. method:: join([timeout]) - Block the calling thread until the process whose :meth:`join` method is - called terminates or until the optional timeout occurs. - - If *timeout* is ``None`` then there is no timeout. + If the optional argument *timeout* is ``None`` (the default), the method + blocks until the process whose :meth:`join` method is called terminates. + If *timeout* is a positive number, it blocks at most *timeout* seconds. A process can be joined many times. @@ -350,11 +351,14 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the .. attribute:: name - The process's name. + The process's name. The name is a string used for identification purposes + only. It has no semantics. Multiple processes may be given the same + name. - The name is a string used for identification purposes only. It has no - semantics. Multiple processes may be given the same name. The initial - name is set by the constructor. + The initial name is set by the constructor. If no explicit name is + provided to the constructor, a name of the form + 'Process-N\ :sub:`1`:N\ :sub:`2`:...:N\ :sub:`k`' is constructed, where + each N\ :sub:`k` is the N-th child of its parent. .. method:: is_alive @@ -406,6 +410,21 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`. + .. attribute:: sentinel + + A numeric handle of a system object which will become "ready" when + the process ends. + + You can use this value if you want to wait on several events at + once using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`. Otherwise + calling :meth:`join()` is simpler. + + On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the ``WaitForSingleObject`` + and ``WaitForMultipleObjects`` family of API calls. On Unix, this is + a file descriptor usable with primitives from the :mod:`select` module. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. method:: terminate() Terminate the process. On Unix this is done using the ``SIGTERM`` signal; @@ -445,6 +464,9 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM True +.. exception:: ProcessError + + The base class of all :mod:`multiprocessing` exceptions. .. exception:: BufferTooShort @@ -454,6 +476,13 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the If ``e`` is an instance of :exc:`BufferTooShort` then ``e.args[0]`` will give the message as a byte string. +.. exception:: AuthenticationError + + Raised when there is an authentication error. + +.. exception:: TimeoutError + + Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires. Pipes and Queues ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ @@ -465,7 +494,7 @@ primitives like locks. For passing messages one can use :func:`Pipe` (for a connection between two processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and consumers). -The :class:`Queue`, :class:`multiprocessing.queues.SimpleQueue` and :class:`JoinableQueue` types are multi-producer, +The :class:`Queue`, :class:`SimpleQueue` and :class:`JoinableQueue` types are multi-producer, multi-consumer FIFO queues modelled on the :class:`queue.Queue` class in the standard library. They differ in that :class:`Queue` lacks the :meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done` and :meth:`~queue.Queue.join` methods introduced @@ -611,7 +640,7 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see exits -- see :meth:`join_thread`. -.. class:: multiprocessing.queues.SimpleQueue() +.. class:: SimpleQueue() It is a simplified :class:`Queue` type, very close to a locked :class:`Pipe`. @@ -635,8 +664,8 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see .. method:: task_done() - Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue consumer - threads. For each :meth:`~Queue.get` used to fetch a task, a subsequent + Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue + consumers. For each :meth:`~Queue.get` used to fetch a task, a subsequent call to :meth:`task_done` tells the queue that the processing on the task is complete. @@ -653,7 +682,7 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed. The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the - queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls + queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer calls :meth:`task_done` to indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete. When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, :meth:`~Queue.join` unblocks. @@ -767,6 +796,9 @@ Connection objects are usually created using :func:`Pipe` -- see also *timeout* is a number then this specifies the maximum time in seconds to block. If *timeout* is ``None`` then an infinite timeout is used. + Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by + using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`. + .. method:: send_bytes(buffer[, offset[, size]]) Send byte data from an object supporting the buffer interface as a @@ -785,9 +817,14 @@ Connection objects are usually created using :func:`Pipe` -- see also to receive and the other end has closed. If *maxlength* is specified and the message is longer than *maxlength* - then :exc:`IOError` is raised and the connection will no longer be + then :exc:`OSError` is raised and the connection will no longer be readable. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`IOError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. + + .. method:: recv_bytes_into(buffer[, offset]) Read into *buffer* a complete message of byte data sent from the other end @@ -805,6 +842,14 @@ Connection objects are usually created using :func:`Pipe` -- see also raised and the complete message is available as ``e.args[0]`` where ``e`` is the exception instance. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Connection objects themselves can now be transferred between processes + using :meth:`Connection.send` and :meth:`Connection.recv`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Connection objects now support the context manager protocol -- see + :ref:`typecontextmanager`. :meth:`__enter__` returns the + connection object, and :meth:`__exit__` calls :meth:`close`. For example: @@ -856,6 +901,12 @@ program as they are in a multithreaded program. See the documentation for Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a manager object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`. +.. class:: Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]]) + + A barrier object: a clone of :class:`threading.Barrier`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. class:: BoundedSemaphore([value]) A bounded semaphore object: a clone of :class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore`. @@ -870,15 +921,12 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`. If *lock* is specified then it should be a :class:`Lock` or :class:`RLock` object from :mod:`multiprocessing`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The :meth:`wait_for` method was added. + .. class:: Event() A clone of :class:`threading.Event`. - This method returns the state of the internal semaphore on exit, so it - will always return ``True`` except if a timeout is given and the operation - times out. - - .. versionchanged:: 3.1 - Previously, the method always returned ``None``. .. class:: Lock() @@ -894,6 +942,12 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`. .. note:: + The :meth:`acquire` and :meth:`wait` methods of each of these types + treat negative timeouts as zero timeouts. This differs from + :mod:`threading` where, since version 3.2, the equivalent + :meth:`acquire` methods treat negative timeouts as infinite + timeouts. + On Mac OS X, ``sem_timedwait`` is unsupported, so calling ``acquire()`` with a timeout will emulate that function's behavior using a sleeping loop. @@ -915,10 +969,11 @@ Shared :mod:`ctypes` Objects It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be inherited by child processes. -.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args[, lock]) +.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True) Return a :mod:`ctypes` object allocated from shared memory. By default the - return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the object. + return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the object. The object + itself can be accessed via the *value* attribute of a :class:`Value`. *typecode_or_type* determines the type of the returned object: it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the :mod:`array` @@ -1007,7 +1062,7 @@ processes. attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings -- see documentation for :mod:`ctypes`. -.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *args[, lock]) +.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True) The same as :func:`RawArray` except that depending on the value of *lock* a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes @@ -1022,7 +1077,7 @@ processes. Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument. -.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args[, lock]) +.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True) The same as :func:`RawValue` except that depending on the value of *lock* a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes @@ -1124,8 +1179,10 @@ Managers ~~~~~~~~ Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between different -processes. A manager object controls a server process which manages *shared -objects*. Other processes can access the shared objects by using proxies. +processes, including sharing over a network between processes running on +different machines. A manager object controls a server process which manages +*shared objects*. Other processes can access the shared objects by using +proxies. .. function:: multiprocessing.Manager() @@ -1198,9 +1255,10 @@ their parent process exits. The manager classes are defined in the type of shared object. This must be a string. *callable* is a callable used for creating objects for this type - identifier. If a manager instance will be created using the - :meth:`from_address` classmethod or if the *create_method* argument is - ``False`` then this can be left as ``None``. + identifier. If a manager instance will be connected to the + server using the :meth:`connect` method, or if the + *create_method* argument is ``False`` then this can be left as + ``None``. *proxytype* is a subclass of :class:`BaseProxy` which is used to create proxies for shared objects with this *typeid*. If ``None`` then a proxy @@ -1232,6 +1290,14 @@ their parent process exits. The manager classes are defined in the The address used by the manager. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Manager objects support the context manager protocol -- see + :ref:`typecontextmanager`. :meth:`__enter__` starts the server + process (if it has not already started) and then returns the + manager object. :meth:`__exit__` calls :meth:`shutdown`. + + In previous versions :meth:`__enter__` did not start the + manager's server process if it was not already started. .. class:: SyncManager @@ -1241,6 +1307,13 @@ their parent process exits. The manager classes are defined in the It also supports creation of shared lists and dictionaries. + .. method:: Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]]) + + Create a shared :class:`threading.Barrier` object and return a + proxy for it. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. method:: BoundedSemaphore([value]) Create a shared :class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore` object and return a @@ -1254,6 +1327,9 @@ their parent process exits. The manager classes are defined in the If *lock* is supplied then it should be a proxy for a :class:`threading.Lock` or :class:`threading.RLock` object. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The :meth:`wait_for` method was added. + .. method:: Event() Create a shared :class:`threading.Event` object and return a proxy for it. @@ -1359,11 +1435,10 @@ callables with the manager class. For example:: MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass) if __name__ == '__main__': - manager = MyManager() - manager.start() - maths = manager.Maths() - print(maths.add(4, 3)) # prints 7 - print(maths.mul(7, 8)) # prints 56 + with MyManager() as manager: + maths = manager.Maths() + print(maths.add(4, 3)) # prints 7 + print(maths.mul(7, 8)) # prints 56 Using a remote manager @@ -1658,6 +1733,24 @@ with the :class:`Pool` class. returned iterator should be considered arbitrary. (Only when there is only one worker process is the order guaranteed to be "correct".) + .. method:: starmap(func, iterable[, chunksize]) + + Like :meth:`map` except that the elements of the `iterable` are expected + to be iterables that are unpacked as arguments. + + Hence an `iterable` of `[(1,2), (3, 4)]` results in `[func(1,2), + func(3,4)]`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: starmap_async(func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[, error_back]]]) + + A combination of :meth:`starmap` and :meth:`map_async` that iterates over + `iterable` of iterables and calls `func` with the iterables unpacked. + Returns a result object. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. method:: close() Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool. Once all the @@ -1674,6 +1767,11 @@ with the :class:`Pool` class. Wait for the worker processes to exit. One must call :meth:`close` or :meth:`terminate` before using :meth:`join`. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Pool objects now support the context manager protocol -- see + :ref:`typecontextmanager`. :meth:`__enter__` returns the pool + object, and :meth:`__exit__` calls :meth:`terminate`. + .. class:: AsyncResult @@ -1708,21 +1806,20 @@ The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:: return x*x if __name__ == '__main__': - pool = Pool(processes=4) # start 4 worker processes + with Pool(processes=4) as pool: # start 4 worker processes + result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously + print(result.get(timeout=1)) # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow - result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously - print(result.get(timeout=1)) # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow + print(pool.map(f, range(10))) # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]" - print(pool.map(f, range(10))) # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]" + it = pool.imap(f, range(10)) + print(next(it)) # prints "0" + print(next(it)) # prints "1" + print(it.next(timeout=1)) # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow - it = pool.imap(f, range(10)) - print(next(it)) # prints "0" - print(next(it)) # prints "1" - print(it.next(timeout=1)) # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow - - import time - result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,)) - print(result.get(timeout=1)) # raises TimeoutError + import time + result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,)) + print(result.get(timeout=1)) # raises TimeoutError .. _multiprocessing-listeners-clients: @@ -1738,8 +1835,9 @@ Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by using However, the :mod:`multiprocessing.connection` module allows some extra flexibility. It basically gives a high level message oriented API for dealing -with sockets or Windows named pipes, and also has support for *digest -authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module. +with sockets or Windows named pipes. It also has support for *digest +authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module, and for polling +multiple connections at the same time. .. function:: deliver_challenge(connection, authkey) @@ -1749,15 +1847,15 @@ authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module. If the reply matches the digest of the message using *authkey* as the key then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the connection. Otherwise - :exc:`AuthenticationError` is raised. + :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised. .. function:: answerChallenge(connection, authkey) Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using *authkey* as the key, and then send the digest back. - If a welcome message is not received, then :exc:`AuthenticationError` is - raised. + If a welcome message is not received, then + :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised. .. function:: Client(address[, family[, authenticate[, authkey]]]) @@ -1771,7 +1869,8 @@ authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module. If *authenticate* is ``True`` or *authkey* is a byte string then digest authentication is used. The key used for authentication will be either *authkey* or ``current_process().authkey`` if *authkey* is ``None``. - If authentication fails then :exc:`AuthenticationError` is raised. See + If authentication fails then + :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised. See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`. .. class:: Listener([address[, family[, backlog[, authenticate[, authkey]]]]]) @@ -1812,13 +1911,15 @@ authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module. ``current_process().authkey`` is used as the authentication key. If *authkey* is ``None`` and *authenticate* is ``False`` then no authentication is done. If authentication fails then - :exc:`AuthenticationError` is raised. See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`. + :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised. + See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`. .. method:: accept() Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object and return a :class:`Connection` object. If authentication is - attempted and fails, then :exc:`AuthenticationError` is raised. + attempted and fails, then + :exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised. .. method:: close() @@ -1837,12 +1938,44 @@ authentication* using the :mod:`hmac` module. The address from which the last accepted connection came. If this is unavailable then it is ``None``. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Listener objects now support the context manager protocol -- see + :ref:`typecontextmanager`. :meth:`__enter__` returns the + listener object, and :meth:`__exit__` calls :meth:`close`. -The module defines two exceptions: +.. function:: wait(object_list, timeout=None) -.. exception:: AuthenticationError + Wait till an object in *object_list* is ready. Returns the list of + those objects in *object_list* which are ready. If *timeout* is a + float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds. If + *timeout* is ``None`` then it will block for an unlimited period. + A negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout. + + For both Unix and Windows, an object can appear in *object_list* if + it is + + * a readable :class:`~multiprocessing.Connection` object; + * a connected and readable :class:`socket.socket` object; or + * the :attr:`~multiprocessing.Process.sentinel` attribute of a + :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` object. + + A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available + to be read from it, or the other end has been closed. + + **Unix**: ``wait(object_list, timeout)`` almost equivalent + ``select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)``. The difference is + that, if :func:`select.select` is interrupted by a signal, it can + raise :exc:`OSError` with an error number of ``EINTR``, whereas + :func:`wait` will not. + + **Windows**: An item in *object_list* must either be an integer + handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the + documentation of the Win32 function ``WaitForMultipleObjects()``) + or it can be an object with a :meth:`fileno` method which returns a + socket handle or pipe handle. (Note that pipe handles and socket + handles are **not** waitable handles.) - Exception raised when there is an authentication error. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 **Examples** @@ -1855,19 +1988,16 @@ the client:: from array import array address = ('localhost', 6000) # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET' - listener = Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') - conn = listener.accept() - print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted) + with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener: + with listener.accept() as conn: + print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted) - conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float]) + conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float]) - conn.send_bytes(b'hello') + conn.send_bytes(b'hello') - conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729])) - - conn.close() - listener.close() + conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729])) The following code connects to the server and receives some data from the server:: @@ -1876,17 +2006,50 @@ server:: from array import array address = ('localhost', 6000) - conn = Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') - print(conn.recv()) # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float] + with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn: + print(conn.recv()) # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float] + + print(conn.recv_bytes()) # => 'hello' + + arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]) + print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr)) # => 8 + print(arr) # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0]) + +The following code uses :func:`~multiprocessing.connection.wait` to +wait for messages from multiple processes at once:: - print(conn.recv_bytes()) # => 'hello' + import time, random + from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process + from multiprocessing.connection import wait - arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]) - print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr)) # => 8 - print(arr) # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0]) + def foo(w): + for i in range(10): + w.send((i, current_process().name)) + w.close() - conn.close() + if __name__ == '__main__': + readers = [] + + for i in range(4): + r, w = Pipe(duplex=False) + readers.append(r) + p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,)) + p.start() + # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that + # p is the only process which owns a handle for it. This + # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end, + # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready. + w.close() + + while readers: + for r in wait(readers): + try: + msg = r.recv() + except EOFError: + readers.remove(r) + else: + print(msg) .. _multiprocessing-address-formats: @@ -2047,7 +2210,7 @@ Avoid shared state It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for communication between processes rather than using the lower level synchronization - primitives from the :mod:`threading` module. + primitives. Picklability diff --git a/Doc/library/nntplib.rst b/Doc/library/nntplib.rst index 247efb7..87a50b0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/nntplib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/nntplib.rst @@ -70,10 +70,23 @@ The module itself defines the following classes: connecting to an NNTP server on the local machine and intend to call reader-specific commands, such as ``group``. If you get unexpected :exc:`NNTPPermanentError`\ s, you might need to set *readermode*. + :class:`NNTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement to + unconditionally consume :exc:`socket.error` exceptions and to close the NNTP + connection when done. Here is a sample on how using it: + + >>> from nntplib import NNTP + >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n: + ... n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers') + ... + ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers') + >>> + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 *usenetrc* is now False by default. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added. .. class:: NNTP_SSL(host, port=563, user=None, password=None, ssl_context=None, readermode=None, usenetrc=False, [timeout]) @@ -504,6 +517,9 @@ them have been superseded by newer commands in :rfc:`3977`. article with message ID *id*. Most of the time, this extension is not enabled by NNTP server administrators. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + The XPATH extension is not actively used. + .. XXX deprecated: diff --git a/Doc/library/numeric.rst b/Doc/library/numeric.rst index ba22cb6..2732a84 100644 --- a/Doc/library/numeric.rst +++ b/Doc/library/numeric.rst @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ Numeric and Mathematical Modules The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions and data types. The :mod:`numbers` module defines an abstract hierarchy of numeric types. The :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath` modules contain various -mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. For users more -interested in decimal accuracy than in speed, the :mod:`decimal` module supports -exact representations of decimal numbers. +mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. The :mod:`decimal` +module supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary precision +arithmetic. The following modules are documented in this chapter: diff --git a/Doc/library/os.path.rst b/Doc/library/os.path.rst index 214e27c..20a84b6 100644 --- a/Doc/library/os.path.rst +++ b/Doc/library/os.path.rst @@ -70,11 +70,16 @@ applications should use string objects to access all files. .. function:: exists(path) - Return ``True`` if *path* refers to an existing path. Returns ``False`` for - broken symbolic links. On some platforms, this function may return ``False`` if - permission is not granted to execute :func:`os.stat` on the requested file, even + Return ``True`` if *path* refers to an existing path or an open + file descriptor. Returns ``False`` for broken symbolic links. On + some platforms, this function may return ``False`` if permission is + not granted to execute :func:`os.stat` on the requested file, even if the *path* physically exists. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *path* can now be an integer: ``True`` is returned if it is an + open file descriptor, ``False`` otherwise. + .. function:: lexists(path) @@ -254,7 +259,8 @@ applications should use string objects to access all files. Availability: Unix, Windows. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added Windows support. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + Added Windows support. .. function:: samestat(stat1, stat2) diff --git a/Doc/library/os.rst b/Doc/library/os.rst index 5991e29..5f149cb 100644 --- a/Doc/library/os.rst +++ b/Doc/library/os.rst @@ -96,6 +96,13 @@ These functions and data items provide information and operate on the current process and user. +.. function:: ctermid() + + Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. data:: environ A mapping object representing the string environment. For example, @@ -177,6 +184,28 @@ process and user. .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. function:: getenv(key, default=None) + + Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or + *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are str. + + On Unix, keys and values are decoded with :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` + and ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler. Use :func:`os.getenvb` if you + would like to use a different encoding. + + Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows. + + +.. function:: getenvb(key, default=None) + + Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or + *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are bytes. + + Availability: most flavors of Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.2 + + .. function:: get_exec_path(env=None) Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named @@ -188,13 +217,6 @@ process and user. .. versionadded:: 3.2 -.. function:: ctermid() - - Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process. - - Availability: Unix. - - .. function:: getegid() Return the effective group id of the current process. This corresponds to the @@ -221,6 +243,17 @@ process and user. Availability: Unix. +.. function:: getgrouplist(user, group) + + Return list of group ids that *user* belongs to. If *group* is not in the + list, it is included; typically, *group* is specified as the group ID + field from the password record for *user*. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: getgroups() Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process. @@ -242,17 +275,6 @@ process and user. obtained with :func:`sysconfig.get_config_var`. -.. function:: initgroups(username, gid) - - Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of - the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified - group id. - - Availability: Unix. - - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - - .. function:: getlogin() Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal of the @@ -297,11 +319,40 @@ process and user. the id returned is the one of the init process (1), on Windows it is still the same id, which may be already reused by another process. - Availability: Unix, Windows + Availability: Unix, Windows. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows. + +.. function:: getpriority(which, who) + + .. index:: single: process; scheduling priority + + Get program scheduling priority. The value *which* is one of + :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, or :const:`PRIO_USER`, and *who* + is interpreted relative to *which* (a process identifier for + :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, process group identifier for :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, and a + user ID for :const:`PRIO_USER`). A zero value for *who* denotes + (respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process, + or the real user ID of the calling process. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: PRIO_PROCESS + PRIO_PGRP + PRIO_USER + + Parameters for the :func:`getpriority` and :func:`setpriority` functions. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: getresuid() Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's @@ -331,24 +382,13 @@ process and user. Availability: Unix. -.. function:: getenv(key, default=None) - - Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or - *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are str. - - On Unix, keys and values are decoded with :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` - and ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler. Use :func:`os.getenvb` if you - would like to use a different encoding. - - Availability: most flavors of Unix, Windows. - - -.. function:: getenvb(key, default=None) +.. function:: initgroups(username, gid) - Return the value of the environment variable *key* if it exists, or - *default* if it doesn't. *key*, *default* and the result are bytes. + Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of + the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified + group id. - Availability: most flavors of Unix. + Availability: Unix. .. versionadded:: 3.2 @@ -410,7 +450,7 @@ process and user. .. function:: setpgrp() - Call the system call :c:func:`setpgrp` or :c:func:`setpgrp(0, 0)` depending on + Call the system call :c:func:`setpgrp` or ``setpgrp(0, 0)`` depending on which version is implemented (if any). See the Unix manual for the semantics. Availability: Unix. @@ -425,6 +465,25 @@ process and user. Availability: Unix. +.. function:: setpriority(which, who, priority) + + .. index:: single: process; scheduling priority + + Set program scheduling priority. The value *which* is one of + :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, or :const:`PRIO_USER`, and *who* + is interpreted relative to *which* (a process identifier for + :const:`PRIO_PROCESS`, process group identifier for :const:`PRIO_PGRP`, and a + user ID for :const:`PRIO_USER`). A zero value for *who* denotes + (respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process, + or the real user ID of the calling process. + *priority* is a value in the range -20 to 19. The default priority is 0; + lower priorities cause more favorable scheduling. + + Availability: Unix + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: setregid(rgid, egid) Set the current process's real and effective group ids. @@ -511,15 +570,31 @@ process and user. single: gethostname() (in module socket) single: gethostbyaddr() (in module socket) - Return a 5-tuple containing information identifying the current operating - system. The tuple contains 5 strings: ``(sysname, nodename, release, version, - machine)``. Some systems truncate the nodename to 8 characters or to the + Returns information identifying the current operating system. + The return value is an object with five attributes: + + * :attr:`sysname` - operating system name + * :attr:`nodename` - name of machine on network (implementation-defined) + * :attr:`release` - operating system release + * :attr:`version` - operating system version + * :attr:`machine` - hardware identifier + + For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving + like a five-tuple containing :attr:`sysname`, :attr:`nodename`, + :attr:`release`, :attr:`version`, and :attr:`machine` + in that order. + + Some systems truncate :attr:`nodename` to 8 characters or to the leading component; a better way to get the hostname is :func:`socket.gethostname` or even ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``. Availability: recent flavors of Unix. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object + with named attributes. + .. function:: unsetenv(key) @@ -542,15 +617,16 @@ process and user. File Object Creation -------------------- -These functions create new :term:`file objects <file object>`. (See also :func:`open`.) +This function creates new :term:`file objects <file object>`. (See also +:func:`~os.open` for opening file descriptors.) .. function:: fdopen(fd, *args, **kwargs) - Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor *fd*. - This is an alias of :func:`open` and accepts the same arguments. - The only difference is that the first argument of :func:`fdopen` - must always be an integer. + Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor *fd*. This is an + alias of the :func:`open` built-in function and accepts the same arguments. + The only difference is that the first argument of :func:`fdopen` must always + be an integer. .. _os-fd-ops: @@ -572,6 +648,7 @@ associated with a :term:`file object` when required. Note that using the file descriptor directly will bypass the file object methods, ignoring aspects such as internal buffering of data. + .. function:: close(fd) Close file descriptor *fd*. @@ -589,7 +666,7 @@ as internal buffering of data. .. function:: closerange(fd_low, fd_high) Close all file descriptors from *fd_low* (inclusive) to *fd_high* (exclusive), - ignoring errors. Equivalent to:: + ignoring errors. Equivalent to (but much faster than):: for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high): try: @@ -622,8 +699,9 @@ as internal buffering of data. .. function:: fchmod(fd, mode) - Change the mode of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *mode*. See the docs - for :func:`chmod` for possible values of *mode*. + Change the mode of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *mode*. See the + docs for :func:`chmod` for possible values of *mode*. As of Python 3.3, this + is equivalent to ``os.chmod(fd, mode)``. Availability: Unix. @@ -631,7 +709,9 @@ as internal buffering of data. .. function:: fchown(fd, uid, gid) Change the owner and group id of the file given by *fd* to the numeric *uid* - and *gid*. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. + and *gid*. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. See + :func:`chown`. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.chown(fd, uid, + gid)``. Availability: Unix. @@ -662,20 +742,24 @@ as internal buffering of data. included in ``pathconf_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number. + As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.pathconf(fd, name)``. + Availability: Unix. .. function:: fstat(fd) - Return status for file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`~os.stat`. + Return status for file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`~os.stat`. As of Python + 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.stat(fd)``. Availability: Unix, Windows. .. function:: fstatvfs(fd) - Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with file - descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`. + Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with + file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`. As of Python 3.3, this is + equivalent to ``os.statvfs(fd)``. Availability: Unix. @@ -689,13 +773,14 @@ as internal buffering of data. ``f.flush()``, and then do ``os.fsync(f.fileno())``, to ensure that all internal buffers associated with *f* are written to disk. - Availability: Unix, and Windows. + Availability: Unix, Windows. .. function:: ftruncate(fd, length) - Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor *fd*, so that it is at most - *length* bytes in size. + Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor *fd*, so that it is at + most *length* bytes in size. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to + ``os.truncate(fd, length)``. Availability: Unix. @@ -708,6 +793,31 @@ as internal buffering of data. Availability: Unix. +.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len) + + Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor. + *fd* is an open file descriptor. + *cmd* specifies the command to use - one of :data:`F_LOCK`, :data:`F_TLOCK`, + :data:`F_ULOCK` or :data:`F_TEST`. + *len* specifies the section of the file to lock. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: F_LOCK + F_TLOCK + F_ULOCK + F_TEST + + Flags that specify what action :func:`lockf` will take. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: lseek(fd, pos, how) Set the current position of file descriptor *fd* to position *pos*, modified @@ -724,21 +834,29 @@ as internal buffering of data. SEEK_END Parameters to the :func:`lseek` function. Their values are 0, 1, and 2, - respectively. Availability: Windows, Unix. + respectively. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Some operating systems could support additional values, like + :data:`os.SEEK_HOLE` or :data:`os.SEEK_DATA`. -.. function:: open(file, flags[, mode]) + +.. function:: open(file, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None) Open the file *file* and set various flags according to *flags* and possibly - its mode according to *mode*. The default *mode* is ``0o777`` (octal), and - the current umask value is first masked out. Return the file descriptor for - the newly opened file. + its mode according to *mode*. When computing *mode*, the current umask value + is first masked out. Return the file descriptor for the newly opened file. For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation; flag constants (like :const:`O_RDONLY` and :const:`O_WRONLY`) are defined in this module too (see :ref:`open-constants`). In particular, on Windows adding :const:`O_BINARY` is needed to open files in binary mode. + This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + Availability: Unix, Windows. .. note:: @@ -748,6 +866,9 @@ as internal buffering of data. :meth:`~file.read` and :meth:`~file.write` methods (and many more). To wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use :func:`fdopen`. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. + .. function:: openpty() @@ -768,6 +889,79 @@ as internal buffering of data. Availability: Unix, Windows. +.. function:: pipe2(flags) + + Create a pipe with *flags* set atomically. + *flags* can be constructed by ORing together one or more of these values: + :data:`O_NONBLOCK`, :data:`O_CLOEXEC`. + Return a pair of file descriptors ``(r, w)`` usable for reading and writing, + respectively. + + Availability: some flavors of Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: posix_fallocate(fd, offset, len) + + Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified by *fd* + starting from *offset* and continuing for *len* bytes. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: posix_fadvise(fd, offset, len, advice) + + Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing + the kernel to make optimizations. + The advice applies to the region of the file specified by *fd* starting at + *offset* and continuing for *len* bytes. + *advice* is one of :data:`POSIX_FADV_NORMAL`, :data:`POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL`, + :data:`POSIX_FADV_RANDOM`, :data:`POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE`, + :data:`POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED` or :data:`POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED`. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: POSIX_FADV_NORMAL + POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL + POSIX_FADV_RANDOM + POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE + POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED + POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED + + Flags that can be used in *advice* in :func:`posix_fadvise` that specify + the access pattern that is likely to be used. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: pread(fd, buffersize, offset) + + Read from a file descriptor, *fd*, at a position of *offset*. It will read up + to *buffersize* number of bytes. The file offset remains unchanged. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: pwrite(fd, string, offset) + + Write *string* to a file descriptor, *fd*, from *offset*, leaving the file + offset unchanged. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: read(fd, n) Read at most *n* bytes from file descriptor *fd*. Return a bytestring containing the @@ -779,10 +973,62 @@ as internal buffering of data. .. note:: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file - descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To read a "file object" - returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or - :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdin`, use its :meth:`~file.read` or - :meth:`~file.readline` methods. + descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To read a + "file object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by + :func:`popen` or :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdin`, use its + :meth:`~file.read` or :meth:`~file.readline` methods. + + +.. function:: sendfile(out, in, offset, nbytes) + sendfile(out, in, offset, nbytes, headers=None, trailers=None, flags=0) + + Copy *nbytes* bytes from file descriptor *in* to file descriptor *out* + starting at *offset*. + Return the number of bytes sent. When EOF is reached return 0. + + The first function notation is supported by all platforms that define + :func:`sendfile`. + + On Linux, if *offset* is given as ``None``, the bytes are read from the + current position of *in* and the position of *in* is updated. + + The second case may be used on Mac OS X and FreeBSD where *headers* and + *trailers* are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written before and + after the data from *in* is written. It returns the same as the first case. + + On Mac OS X and FreeBSD, a value of 0 for *nbytes* specifies to send until + the end of *in* is reached. + + On Solaris, *out* may be the file descriptor of a regular file or the file + descriptor of a socket. On all other platforms, *out* must be the file + descriptor of an open socket. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: SF_NODISKIO + SF_MNOWAIT + SF_SYNC + + Parameters to the :func:`sendfile` function, if the implementation supports + them. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: readv(fd, buffers) + + Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers. *buffers* is + an arbitrary sequence of writable buffers. Returns the total number of bytes + read. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. function:: tcgetpgrp(fd) @@ -826,6 +1072,17 @@ as internal buffering of data. :meth:`~file.write` method. +.. function:: writev(fd, buffers) + + Write the contents of *buffers* to file descriptor *fd*, where *buffers* + is an arbitrary sequence of buffers. + Returns the total number of bytes written. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. _open-constants: ``open()`` flag constants @@ -857,9 +1114,12 @@ or `the MSDN <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Window O_NOCTTY O_SHLOCK O_EXLOCK + O_CLOEXEC These constants are only available on Unix. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Add :data:`O_CLOEXEC` constant. .. data:: O_BINARY O_NOINHERIT @@ -882,12 +1142,106 @@ or `the MSDN <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Window the C library. +.. data:: RTLD_LAZY + RTLD_NOW + RTLD_GLOBAL + RTLD_LOCAL + RTLD_NODELETE + RTLD_NOLOAD + RTLD_DEEPBIND + + See the Unix manual page :manpage:`dlopen(3)`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. _terminal-size: + +Querying the size of a terminal +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: get_terminal_size(fd=STDOUT_FILENO) + + Return the size of the terminal window as ``(columns, lines)``, + tuple of type :class:`terminal_size`. + + The optional argument ``fd`` (default ``STDOUT_FILENO``, or standard + output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried. + + If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an :exc:`OSError` + is thrown. + + :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size` is the high-level function which + should normally be used, ``os.get_terminal_size`` is the low-level + implementation. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + +.. class:: terminal_size + + A subclass of tuple, holding ``(columns, lines)`` of the terminal window size. + + .. attribute:: columns + + Width of the terminal window in characters. + + .. attribute:: lines + + Height of the terminal window in characters. + + .. _os-file-dir: Files and Directories --------------------- -.. function:: access(path, mode) +On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of these +features: + +.. _path_fd: + +* **specifying a file descriptor:** + For some functions, the *path* argument can be not only a string giving a path + name, but also a file descriptor. The function will then operate on the file + referred to by the descriptor. (For POSIX systems, Python will call the + ``f...`` version of the function.) + + You can check whether or not *path* can be specified as a file descriptor on + your platform using :data:`os.supports_fd`. If it is unavailable, using it + will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`. + + If the function also supports *dir_fd* or *follow_symlinks* arguments, it is + an error to specify one of those when supplying *path* as a file descriptor. + +.. _dir_fd: + +* **paths relative to directory descriptors:** If *dir_fd* is not ``None``, it + should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate + on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. If the + path is absolute, *dir_fd* is ignored. (For POSIX systems, Python will call + the ``...at`` or ``f...at`` version of the function.) + + You can check whether or not *dir_fd* is supported on your platform using + :data:`os.supports_dir_fd`. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a + :exc:`NotImplementedError`. + +.. _follow_symlinks: + +* **not following symlinks:** If *follow_symlinks* is + ``False``, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, + the function will operate on the symbolic link itself instead of the file the + link points to. (For POSIX systems, Python will call the ``l...`` version of + the function.) + + You can check whether or not *follow_symlinks* is supported on your platform + using :data:`os.supports_follow_symlinks`. If it is unavailable, using it + will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`. + + + +.. function:: access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True) Use the real uid/gid to test for access to *path*. Note that most operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a @@ -898,6 +1252,15 @@ Files and Directories :const:`False` if not. See the Unix man page :manpage:`access(2)` for more information. + This function can support specifying :ref:`paths relative to directory + descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + If *effective_ids* is ``True``, :func:`access` will perform its access + checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid. + *effective_ids* may not be supported on your platform; you can check whether + or not it is available using :data:`os.supports_effective_ids`. If it is + unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`. + Availability: Unix, Windows. .. note:: @@ -917,11 +1280,8 @@ Files and Directories try: fp = open("myfile") - except IOError as e: - if e.errno == errno.EACCES: - return "some default data" - # Not a permission error. - raise + except PermissionError: + return "some default data" else: with fp: return fp.read() @@ -932,29 +1292,18 @@ Files and Directories succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *dir_fd*, *effective_ids*, and *follow_symlinks* parameters. -.. data:: F_OK - - Value to pass as the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to test the existence of - *path*. - - -.. data:: R_OK - - Value to include in the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to test the - readability of *path*. +.. data:: F_OK + R_OK + W_OK + X_OK -.. data:: W_OK - - Value to include in the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to test the - writability of *path*. - - -.. data:: X_OK - - Value to include in the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to determine if - *path* can be executed. + Values to pass as the *mode* parameter of :func:`access` to test the + existence, readability, writability and executability of *path*, + respectively. .. function:: chdir(path) @@ -963,33 +1312,17 @@ Files and Directories Change the current working directory to *path*. - Availability: Unix, Windows. - - -.. function:: fchdir(fd) - - Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file - descriptor *fd*. The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open - file. - - Availability: Unix. - - -.. function:: getcwd() - - Return a string representing the current working directory. + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`. The + descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file. Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying *path* as a file descriptor + on some platforms. -.. function:: getcwdb() - - Return a bytestring representing the current working directory. - - Availability: Unix, Windows. - -.. function:: chflags(path, flags) +.. function:: chflags(path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True) Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*. *flags* may take a combination (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the :mod:`stat` module): @@ -1007,16 +1340,15 @@ Files and Directories * :data:`stat.SF_NOUNLINK` * :data:`stat.SF_SNAPSHOT` - Availability: Unix. - + This function can support :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. -.. function:: chroot(path) + Availability: Unix. - Change the root directory of the current process to *path*. Availability: - Unix. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *follow_symlinks* argument. -.. function:: chmod(path, mode) +.. function:: chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Change the mode of *path* to the numeric *mode*. *mode* may take one of the following values (as defined in the :mod:`stat` module) or bitwise ORed @@ -1042,28 +1374,77 @@ Files and Directories * :data:`stat.S_IWOTH` * :data:`stat.S_IXOTH` + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`, + :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not + following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + Availability: Unix, Windows. .. note:: - Although Windows supports :func:`chmod`, you can only set the file's read-only - flag with it (via the ``stat.S_IWRITE`` and ``stat.S_IREAD`` - constants or a corresponding integer value). All other bits are - ignored. + Although Windows supports :func:`chmod`, you can only set the file's + read-only flag with it (via the ``stat.S_IWRITE`` and ``stat.S_IREAD`` + constants or a corresponding integer value). All other bits are ignored. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying *path* as an open file descriptor, + and the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments. + +.. function:: chown(path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) -.. function:: chown(path, uid, gid) + Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. To + leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. - Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. To leave - one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`, + :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not + following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + See :func:`shutil.chown` for a higher-level function that accepts names in + addition to numeric ids. Availability: Unix. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*, + and the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments. + + +.. function:: chroot(path) + + Change the root directory of the current process to *path*. + + Availability: Unix. + + +.. function:: fchdir(fd) + + Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file + descriptor *fd*. The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an + open file. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.chdir(fd)``. + + Availability: Unix. + + +.. function:: getcwd() + + Return a string representing the current working directory. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + + +.. function:: getcwdb() + + Return a bytestring representing the current working directory. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. function:: lchflags(path, flags) - Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*, like :func:`chflags`, but do not - follow symbolic links. + Set the flags of *path* to the numeric *flags*, like :func:`chflags`, but do + not follow symbolic links. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to + ``os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False)``. Availability: Unix. @@ -1071,60 +1452,135 @@ Files and Directories .. function:: lchmod(path, mode) Change the mode of *path* to the numeric *mode*. If path is a symlink, this - affects the symlink rather than the target. See the docs for :func:`chmod` - for possible values of *mode*. + affects the symlink rather than the target. See the docs for :func:`chmod` + for possible values of *mode*. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to + ``os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False)``. Availability: Unix. .. function:: lchown(path, uid, gid) - Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. This - function will not follow symbolic links. + Change the owner and group id of *path* to the numeric *uid* and *gid*. This + function will not follow symbolic links. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent + to ``os.chown(path, uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False)``. Availability: Unix. -.. function:: link(source, link_name) +.. function:: link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) + + Create a hard link pointing to *src* named *dst*. - Create a hard link pointing to *source* named *link_name*. + This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to + supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`, and :ref:`not + following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. Availability: Unix, Windows. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added Windows support. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added the *src_dir_fd*, *dst_dir_fd*, and *follow_symlinks* arguments. + .. function:: listdir(path='.') Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by - *path* (default: ``'.'``). The list is in arbitrary order. It does not include the special + *path*. The list is in arbitrary order, and does not include the special entries ``'.'`` and ``'..'`` even if they are present in the directory. - This function can be called with a bytes or string argument, and returns - filenames of the same datatype. + *path* may be either of type ``str`` or of type ``bytes``. If *path* + is of type ``bytes``, the filenames returned will also be of type ``bytes``; + in all other circumstances, they will be of type ``str``. + + This function can also support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor + <path_fd>`; the file descriptor must refer to a directory. + + .. note:: + To encode ``str`` filenames to ``bytes``, use :func:`~os.fsencode`. Availability: Unix, Windows. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 The *path* parameter became optional. -.. function:: lstat(path) + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*. + + +.. function:: lstat(path, *, dir_fd=None) Perform the equivalent of an :c:func:`lstat` system call on the given path. Similar to :func:`~os.stat`, but does not follow symbolic links. On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias for - :func:`~os.stat`. + :func:`~os.stat`. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.stat(path, + dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False)``. + + This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *dir_fd* parameter. + + +.. function:: mkdir(path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None) + + Create a directory named *path* with numeric mode *mode*. + + On some systems, *mode* is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask + value is first masked out. If the directory already exists, :exc:`OSError` + is raised. + + This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. -.. function:: mkfifo(path[, mode]) + It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the + :mod:`tempfile` module's :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp` function. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. + + +.. function:: makedirs(path, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False) + + .. index:: + single: directory; creating + single: UNC paths; and os.makedirs() + + Recursive directory creation function. Like :func:`mkdir`, but makes all + intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory. If + the target directory with the same mode as specified already exists, + raises an :exc:`OSError` exception if *exist_ok* is False, otherwise no + exception is raised. If the directory cannot be created in other cases, + raises an :exc:`OSError` exception. The default *mode* is ``0o777`` (octal). + On some systems, *mode* is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask + value is first masked out. + + .. note:: + + :func:`makedirs` will become confused if the path elements to create + include :data:`pardir`. - Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named *path* with numeric mode *mode*. The - default *mode* is ``0o666`` (octal). The current umask value is first masked - out from the mode. + This function handles UNC paths correctly. + + .. versionadded:: 3.2 + The *exist_ok* parameter. + + +.. function:: mkfifo(path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None) + + Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named *path* with numeric mode *mode*. + The current umask value is first masked out from the mode. + + This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. FIFOs exist until they are deleted (for example with :func:`os.unlink`). Generally, FIFOs are used as @@ -1134,8 +1590,11 @@ Files and Directories Availability: Unix. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. -.. function:: mknod(filename[, mode=0o600[, device=0]]) + +.. function:: mknod(filename, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None) Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named *filename*. *mode* specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node @@ -1145,6 +1604,12 @@ Files and Directories *device* defines the newly created device special file (probably using :func:`os.makedev`), otherwise it is ignored. + This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. + .. function:: major(device) @@ -1163,45 +1628,6 @@ Files and Directories Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers. -.. function:: mkdir(path[, mode]) - - Create a directory named *path* with numeric mode *mode*. The default *mode* - is ``0o777`` (octal). On some systems, *mode* is ignored. Where it is used, - the current umask value is first masked out. If the directory already - exists, :exc:`OSError` is raised. - - It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the - :mod:`tempfile` module's :func:`tempfile.mkdtemp` function. - - Availability: Unix, Windows. - - -.. function:: makedirs(path, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False) - - .. index:: - single: directory; creating - single: UNC paths; and os.makedirs() - - Recursive directory creation function. Like :func:`mkdir`, but makes all - intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory. If - the target directory with the same mode as specified already exists, - raises an :exc:`OSError` exception if *exist_ok* is False, otherwise no - exception is raised. If the directory cannot be created in other cases, - raises an :exc:`OSError` exception. The default *mode* is ``0o777`` (octal). - On some systems, *mode* is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask - value is first masked out. - - .. note:: - - :func:`makedirs` will become confused if the path elements to create - include :data:`pardir`. - - This function handles UNC paths correctly. - - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - The *exist_ok* parameter. - - .. function:: pathconf(path, name) Return system configuration information relevant to a named file. *name* @@ -1217,6 +1643,9 @@ Files and Directories included in ``pathconf_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number. + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor + <path_fd>`. + Availability: Unix. @@ -1224,38 +1653,53 @@ Files and Directories Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:`pathconf` and :func:`fpathconf` to the integer values defined for those names by the host operating system. This - can be used to determine the set of names known to the system. Availability: - Unix. + can be used to determine the set of names known to the system. + + Availability: Unix. -.. function:: readlink(path) +.. function:: readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None) Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. The - result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if it is relative, it may - be converted to an absolute pathname using ``os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), - result)``. + result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if it is relative, it + may be converted to an absolute pathname using + ``os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)``. If the *path* is a string object, the result will also be a string object, and the call may raise an UnicodeDecodeError. If the *path* is a bytes object, the result will be a bytes object. + This function can also support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + Availability: Unix, Windows .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. + -.. function:: remove(path) +.. function:: remove(path, *, dir_fd=None) Remove (delete) the file *path*. If *path* is a directory, :exc:`OSError` is - raised; see :func:`rmdir` below to remove a directory. This is identical to - the :func:`unlink` function documented below. On Windows, attempting to - remove a file that is in use causes an exception to be raised; on Unix, the - directory entry is removed but the storage allocated to the file is not made - available until the original file is no longer in use. + raised. Use :func:`rmdir` to remove directories. + + This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + + On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an exception to + be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but the storage allocated + to the file is not made available until the original file is no longer in use. + + This function is identical to :func:`unlink`. Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* argument. + .. function:: removedirs(path) @@ -1271,7 +1715,7 @@ Files and Directories successfully removed. -.. function:: rename(src, dst) +.. function:: rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None) Rename the file or directory *src* to *dst*. If *dst* is a directory, :exc:`OSError` will be raised. On Unix, if *dst* exists and is a file, it will @@ -1279,11 +1723,18 @@ Files and Directories Unix flavors if *src* and *dst* are on different filesystems. If successful, the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement). On Windows, if *dst* already exists, :exc:`OSError` will be raised even if it is a - file; there may be no way to implement an atomic rename when *dst* names an - existing file. + file. + + This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to + supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`. + + If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use :func:`replace`. Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *src_dir_fd* and *dst_dir_fd* arguments. + .. function:: renames(old, new) @@ -1298,22 +1749,46 @@ Files and Directories permissions needed to remove the leaf directory or file. -.. function:: rmdir(path) +.. function:: replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None) + + Rename the file or directory *src* to *dst*. If *dst* is a directory, + :exc:`OSError` will be raised. If *dst* exists and is a file, it will + be replaced silently if the user has permission. The operation may fail + if *src* and *dst* are on different filesystems. If successful, + the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement). + + This function can support specifying *src_dir_fd* and/or *dst_dir_fd* to + supply :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>`. + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None) Remove (delete) the directory *path*. Only works when the directory is empty, otherwise, :exc:`OSError` is raised. In order to remove whole directory trees, :func:`shutil.rmtree` can be used. + This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* parameter. -.. function:: stat(path) + +.. function:: stat(path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Perform the equivalent of a :c:func:`stat` system call on the given path. - (This function follows symlinks; to stat a symlink use :func:`lstat`.) + *path* may be specified as either a string or as an open file descriptor. + (This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the argument + ``follow_symlinks=False``, or use :func:`lstat`.) - The return value is an object whose attributes correspond to the members - of the :c:type:`stat` structure, namely: + The return value is an object whose attributes correspond roughly + to the members of the :c:type:`stat` structure, namely: * :attr:`st_mode` - protection bits, * :attr:`st_ino` - inode number, @@ -1322,10 +1797,18 @@ Files and Directories * :attr:`st_uid` - user id of owner, * :attr:`st_gid` - group id of owner, * :attr:`st_size` - size of file, in bytes, - * :attr:`st_atime` - time of most recent access, - * :attr:`st_mtime` - time of most recent content modification, - * :attr:`st_ctime` - platform dependent; time of most recent metadata change on - Unix, or the time of creation on Windows) + * :attr:`st_atime` - time of most recent access expressed in seconds, + * :attr:`st_mtime` - time of most recent content modification + expressed in seconds, + * :attr:`st_ctime` - platform dependent; time of most recent metadata + change on Unix, or the time of creation on Windows, expressed in seconds + * :attr:`st_atime_ns` - time of most recent access + expressed in nanoseconds as an integer, + * :attr:`st_mtime_ns` - time of most recent content modification + expressed in nanoseconds as an integer, + * :attr:`st_ctime_ns` - platform dependent; time of most recent metadata + change on Unix, or the time of creation on Windows, + expressed in nanoseconds as an integer On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be available: @@ -1355,13 +1838,25 @@ Files and Directories or FAT32 file systems, :attr:`st_mtime` has 2-second resolution, and :attr:`st_atime` has only 1-day resolution. See your operating system documentation for details. - - For backward compatibility, the return value of :func:`~os.stat` is also accessible - as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and portable) - members of the :c:type:`stat` structure, in the order :attr:`st_mode`, - :attr:`st_ino`, :attr:`st_dev`, :attr:`st_nlink`, :attr:`st_uid`, - :attr:`st_gid`, :attr:`st_size`, :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`, - :attr:`st_ctime`. More items may be added at the end by some implementations. + Similarly, although :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, + and :attr:`st_ctime_ns` are always expressed in nanoseconds, many + systems do not provide nanosecond precision. On systems that do + provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point object used to + store :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`, and :attr:`st_ctime` + cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly inexact. + If you need the exact timestamps you should always use + :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, and :attr:`st_ctime_ns`. + + For backward compatibility, the return value of :func:`~os.stat` is also + accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and + portable) members of the :c:type:`stat` structure, in the order + :attr:`st_mode`, :attr:`st_ino`, :attr:`st_dev`, :attr:`st_nlink`, + :attr:`st_uid`, :attr:`st_gid`, :attr:`st_size`, :attr:`st_atime`, + :attr:`st_mtime`, :attr:`st_ctime`. More items may be added at the end by + some implementations. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and + :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. .. index:: module: stat @@ -1382,6 +1877,12 @@ Files and Directories Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added the *dir_fd* and *follow_symlinks* arguments, + specifying a file descriptor instead of a path, + and the :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, + and :attr:`st_ctime_ns` members. + .. function:: stat_float_times([newvalue]) @@ -1407,6 +1908,8 @@ Files and Directories are processed, this application should turn the feature off until the library has been corrected. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + .. function:: statvfs(path) @@ -1422,34 +1925,118 @@ Files and Directories read-only, and if :const:`ST_NOSUID` is set, the semantics of setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported. + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 The :const:`ST_RDONLY` and :const:`ST_NOSUID` constants were added. Availability: Unix. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*. -.. function:: symlink(source, link_name) - symlink(source, link_name, target_is_directory=False) - Create a symbolic link pointing to *source* named *link_name*. +.. data:: supports_dir_fd + + A :class:`~collections.Set` object indicating which functions in the + :mod:`os` module permit use of their *dir_fd* parameter. Different platforms + provide different functionality, and an option that might work on one might + be unsupported on another. For consistency's sakes, functions that support + *dir_fd* always allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception + if the functionality is not actually available. + + To check whether a particular function permits use of its *dir_fd* + parameter, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_dir_fd``. As an example, + this expression determines whether the *dir_fd* parameter of :func:`os.stat` + is locally available:: + + os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd + + Currently *dir_fd* parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of them work + on Windows. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: supports_effective_ids + + A :class:`~collections.Set` object indicating which functions in the + :mod:`os` module permit use of the *effective_ids* parameter for + :func:`os.access`. If the local platform supports it, the collection will + contain :func:`os.access`, otherwise it will be empty. + + To check whether you can use the *effective_ids* parameter for + :func:`os.access`, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_dir_fd``, like so:: + + os.access in os.supports_effective_ids + + Currently *effective_ids* only works on Unix platforms; it does not work on + Windows. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: supports_fd + + A :class:`~collections.Set` object indicating which functions in the + :mod:`os` module permit specifying their *path* parameter as an open file + descriptor. Different platforms provide different functionality, and an + option that might work on one might be unsupported on another. For + consistency's sakes, functions that support *fd* always allow specifying + the parameter, but will throw an exception if the functionality is not + actually available. - On Windows, symlink version takes an additional optional parameter, - *target_is_directory*, which defaults to ``False``. + To check whether a particular function permits specifying an open file + descriptor for its *path* parameter, use the ``in`` operator on + ``supports_fd``. As an example, this expression determines whether + :func:`os.chdir` accepts open file descriptors when called on your local + platform:: - On Windows, a symlink represents a file or a directory, and does not morph to - the target dynamically. If *target_is_directory* is set to ``True``, the - symlink will be created as a directory symlink, otherwise as a file symlink - (the default). + os.chdir in os.supports_fd + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: supports_follow_symlinks + + A :class:`~collections.Set` object indicating which functions in the + :mod:`os` module permit use of their *follow_symlinks* parameter. Different + platforms provide different functionality, and an option that might work on + one might be unsupported on another. For consistency's sakes, functions that + support *follow_symlinks* always allow specifying the parameter, but will + throw an exception if the functionality is not actually available. + + To check whether a particular function permits use of its *follow_symlinks* + parameter, use the ``in`` operator on ``supports_follow_symlinks``. As an + example, this expression determines whether the *follow_symlinks* parameter + of :func:`os.stat` is locally available:: + + os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: symlink(source, link_name, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None) + + Create a symbolic link pointing to *source* named *link_name*. + + On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not + morph to the target dynamically. If *target_is_directory* is set to ``True``, + the symlink will be created as a directory symlink, otherwise as a file symlink + (the default). On non-Window platforms, *target_is_directory* is ignored. Symbolic link support was introduced in Windows 6.0 (Vista). :func:`symlink` will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError` on Windows versions earlier than 6.0. + This function can support :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>`. + .. note:: - The *SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege* is required in order to successfully - create symlinks. This privilege is not typically granted to regular - users but is available to accounts which can escalate privileges to the - administrator level. Either obtaining the privilege or running your + On Windows, the *SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege* is required in order to + successfully create symlinks. This privilege is not typically granted to + regular users but is available to accounts which can escalate privileges + to the administrator level. Either obtaining the privilege or running your application as an administrator are ways to successfully create symlinks. :exc:`OSError` is raised when the function is called by an unprivileged @@ -1460,31 +2047,85 @@ Files and Directories .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added the *dir_fd* argument, and now allow *target_is_directory* + on non-Windows platforms. + + +.. function:: sync() + + Force write of everything to disk. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 -.. function:: unlink(path) - Remove (delete) the file *path*. This is the same function as - :func:`remove`; the :func:`unlink` name is its traditional Unix - name. +.. function:: truncate(path, length) + + Truncate the file corresponding to *path*, so that it is at most + *length* bytes in size. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None) + + Remove (delete) the file *path*. This function is identical to + :func:`remove`; the ``unlink`` name is its traditional Unix + name. Please see the documentation for :func:`remove` for + further information. Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The *dir_fd* parameter. + -.. function:: utime(path, times) +.. function:: utime(path, times=None, *, ns=None, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) - Set the access and modified times of the file specified by *path*. If *times* - is ``None``, then the file's access and modified times are set to the current - time. (The effect is similar to running the Unix program :program:`touch` on - the path.) Otherwise, *times* must be a 2-tuple of numbers, of the form - ``(atime, mtime)`` which is used to set the access and modified times, - respectively. Whether a directory can be given for *path* depends on whether - the operating system implements directories as files (for example, Windows - does not). Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a - subsequent :func:`~os.stat` call, depending on the resolution with which your - operating system records access and modification times; see :func:`~os.stat`. + Set the access and modified times of the file specified by *path*. + + :func:`utime` takes two optional parameters, *times* and *ns*. + These specify the times set on *path* and are used as follows: + + - If *ns* is not ``None``, + it must be a 2-tuple of the form ``(atime_ns, mtime_ns)`` + where each member is an int expressing nanoseconds. + - If *times* is not ``None``, + it must be a 2-tuple of the form ``(atime, mtime)`` + where each member is an int or float expressing seconds. + - If *times* and *ns* are both ``None``, + this is equivalent to specifying ``ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)`` + where both times are the current time. + (The effect is similar to running the Unix program + :program:`touch` on *path*.) + + It is an error to specify tuples for both *times* and *ns*. + + Whether a directory can be given for *path* + depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files + (for example, Windows does not). Note that the exact times you set here may + not be returned by a subsequent :func:`~os.stat` call, depending on the + resolution with which your operating system records access and modification + times; see :func:`~os.stat`. The best way to preserve exact times is to + use the *st_atime_ns* and *st_mtime_ns* fields from the :func:`os.stat` + result object with the *ns* parameter to `utime`. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`, + :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not + following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path*, + and the *dir_fd*, *follow_symlinks*, and *ns* parameters. + .. function:: walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False) @@ -1531,9 +2172,9 @@ Files and Directories .. note:: - Be aware that setting *followlinks* to ``True`` can lead to infinite recursion if a - link points to a parent directory of itself. :func:`walk` does not keep track of - the directories it visited already. + Be aware that setting *followlinks* to ``True`` can lead to infinite + recursion if a link points to a parent directory of itself. :func:`walk` + does not keep track of the directories it visited already. .. note:: @@ -1569,6 +2210,137 @@ Files and Directories os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name)) +.. function:: fwalk(top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *, follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None) + + .. index:: + single: directory; walking + single: directory; traversal + + This behaves exactly like :func:`walk`, except that it yields a 4-tuple + ``(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)``, and it supports ``dir_fd``. + + *dirpath*, *dirnames* and *filenames* are identical to :func:`walk` output, + and *dirfd* is a file descriptor referring to the directory *dirpath*. + + This function always supports :ref:`paths relative to directory descriptors + <dir_fd>` and :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. Note however + that, unlike other functions, the :func:`fwalk` default value for + *follow_symlinks* is ``False``. + + .. note:: + + Since :func:`fwalk` yields file descriptors, those are only valid until + the next iteration step, so you should duplicate them (e.g. with + :func:`dup`) if you want to keep them longer. + + This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each + directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any + CVS subdirectory:: + + import os + for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/email'): + print(root, "consumes", end="") + print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]), + end="") + print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files") + if 'CVS' in dirs: + dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories + + In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential: + :func:`rmdir` doesn't allow deleting a directory before the directory is + empty:: + + # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top", + # assuming there are no symbolic links. + # CAUTION: This is dangerous! For example, if top == '/', it + # could delete all your disk files. + import os + for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False): + for name in files: + os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd) + for name in dirs: + os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd) + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +Linux extended attributes +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +These functions are all available on Linux only. + +.. function:: getxattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True) + + Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* for + *path*. *attribute* can be bytes or str. If it is str, it is encoded + with the filesystem encoding. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and + :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + +.. function:: listxattr(path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True) + + Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on *path*. The + attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the filesystem + encoding. If *path* is ``None``, :func:`listxattr` will examine the current + directory. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and + :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + +.. function:: removexattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True) + + Removes the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* from *path*. + *attribute* should be bytes or str. If it is a string, it is encoded + with the filesystem encoding. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and + :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + +.. function:: setxattr(path, attribute, value, flags=0, *, follow_symlinks=True) + + Set the extended filesystem attribute *attribute* on *path* to *value*. + *attribute* must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs. If it is a str, + it is encoded with the filesystem encoding. *flags* may be + :data:`XATTR_REPLACE` or :data:`XATTR_CREATE`. If :data:`XATTR_REPLACE` is + given and the attribute does not exist, ``EEXISTS`` will be raised. + If :data:`XATTR_CREATE` is given and the attribute already exists, the + attribute will not be created and ``ENODATA`` will be raised. + + This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>` and + :ref:`not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`. + + .. note:: + + A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused the flags argument + to be ignored on some filesystems. + + +.. data:: XATTR_SIZE_MAX + + The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be. Currently, this + is 64 kilobytes on Linux. + + +.. data:: XATTR_CREATE + + This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:`setxattr`. It + indicates the operation must create an attribute. + + +.. data:: XATTR_REPLACE + + This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:`setxattr`. It + indicates the operation must replace an existing attribute. + + .. _os-process: Process Management @@ -1642,8 +2414,16 @@ to be ignored. :func:`execlp`, :func:`execv`, and :func:`execvp` all cause the new process to inherit the environment of the current process. + For :func:`execve` on some platforms, *path* may also be specified as an open + file descriptor. This functionality may not be supported on your platform; + you can check whether or not it is available using :data:`os.supports_fd`. + If it is unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:`NotImplementedError`. + Availability: Unix, Windows. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Added support for specifying an open file descriptor for *path* + for :func:`execve`. .. function:: _exit(n) @@ -1833,6 +2613,8 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program. will be set to *sig*. The Windows version of :func:`kill` additionally takes process handles to be killed. + See also :func:`signal.pthread_kill`. + .. versionadded:: 3.2 Windows support. @@ -2023,14 +2805,30 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program. .. function:: times() - Return a 5-tuple of floating point numbers indicating accumulated (processor - or other) times, in seconds. The items are: user time, system time, - children's user time, children's system time, and elapsed real time since a - fixed point in the past, in that order. See the Unix manual page + Returns the current global process times. + The return value is an object with five attributes: + + * :attr:`user` - user time + * :attr:`system` - system time + * :attr:`children_user` - user time of all child processes + * :attr:`children_system` - system time of all child processes + * :attr:`elapsed` - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past + + For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a five-tuple + containing :attr:`user`, :attr:`system`, :attr:`children_user`, + :attr:`children_system`, and :attr:`elapsed` in that order. + + See the Unix manual page :manpage:`times(2)` or the corresponding Windows Platform API documentation. - On Windows, only the first two items are filled, the others are zero. + On Windows, only :attr:`user` and :attr:`system` are known; the other + attributes are zero. + On OS/2, only :attr:`elapsed` is known; the other attributes are zero. - Availability: Unix, Windows + Availability: Unix, Windows. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object + with named attributes. .. function:: wait() @@ -2043,6 +2841,58 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program. Availability: Unix. +.. function:: waitid(idtype, id, options) + + Wait for the completion of one or more child processes. + *idtype* can be :data:`P_PID`, :data:`P_PGID` or :data:`P_ALL`. + *id* specifies the pid to wait on. + *options* is constructed from the ORing of one or more of :data:`WEXITED`, + :data:`WSTOPPED` or :data:`WCONTINUED` and additionally may be ORed with + :data:`WNOHANG` or :data:`WNOWAIT`. The return value is an object + representing the data contained in the :c:type:`siginfo_t` structure, namely: + :attr:`si_pid`, :attr:`si_uid`, :attr:`si_signo`, :attr:`si_status`, + :attr:`si_code` or ``None`` if :data:`WNOHANG` is specified and there are no + children in a waitable state. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: P_PID + P_PGID + P_ALL + + These are the possible values for *idtype* in :func:`waitid`. They affect + how *id* is interpreted. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: WEXITED + WSTOPPED + WNOWAIT + + Flags that can be used in *options* in :func:`waitid` that specify what + child signal to wait for. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLD_EXITED + CLD_DUMPED + CLD_TRAPPED + CLD_CONTINUED + + These are the possible values for :attr:`si_code` in the result returned by + :func:`waitid`. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. function:: waitpid(pid, options) @@ -2107,7 +2957,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program. This option causes child processes to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop since their status was last reported. - Availability: Some Unix systems. + Availability: some Unix systems. .. data:: WUNTRACED @@ -2184,6 +3034,129 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process. Availability: Unix. +Interface to the scheduler +-------------------------- + +These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating +system. They are only available on some Unix platforms. For more detailed +information, consult your Unix manpages. + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are a supported by the +operating system. + +.. data:: SCHED_OTHER + + The default scheduling policy. + +.. data:: SCHED_BATCH + + Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to preserve + interactivity on the rest of the computer. + +.. data:: SCHED_IDLE + + Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks. + +.. data:: SCHED_SPORADIC + + Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs. + +.. data:: SCHED_FIFO + + A First In First Out scheduling policy. + +.. data:: SCHED_RR + + A round-robin scheduling policy. + +.. data:: SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK + + This flag can OR'ed with any other scheduling policy. When a process with + this flag set forks, its child's scheduling policy and priority are reset to + the default. + + +.. class:: sched_param(sched_priority) + + This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in + :func:`sched_setparam`, :func:`sched_setscheduler`, and + :func:`sched_getparam`. It is immutable. + + At the moment, there is only one possible parameter: + + .. attribute:: sched_priority + + The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy. + + +.. function:: sched_get_priority_min(policy) + + Get the minimum priority value for *policy*. *policy* is one of the + scheduling policy constants above. + + +.. function:: sched_get_priority_max(policy) + + Get the maximum priority value for *policy*. *policy* is one of the + scheduling policy constants above. + + +.. function:: sched_setscheduler(pid, policy, param) + + Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means + the calling process. *policy* is one of the scheduling policy constants + above. *param* is a :class:`sched_param` instance. + + +.. function:: sched_getscheduler(pid) + + Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 + means the calling process. The result is one of the scheduling policy + constants above. + + +.. function:: sched_setparam(pid, param) + + Set a scheduling parameters for the process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means + the calling process. *param* is a :class:`sched_param` instance. + + +.. function:: sched_getparam(pid) + + Return the scheduling parameters as a :class:`sched_param` instance for the + process with PID *pid*. A *pid* of 0 means the calling process. + + +.. function:: sched_rr_get_interval(pid) + + Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID *pid*. A + *pid* of 0 means the calling process. + + +.. function:: sched_yield() + + Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. + + +.. function:: sched_setaffinity(pid, mask) + + Restrict the process with PID *pid* (or the current process if zero) to a + set of CPUs. *mask* is an iterable of integers representing the set of + CPUs to which the process should be restricted. + + +.. function:: sched_getaffinity(pid) + + Return the set of CPUs the process with PID *pid* (or the current process + if zero) is restricted to. + + .. seealso:: + :func:`multiprocessing.cpu_count` returns the number of CPUs in the + system. + + .. _os-path: Miscellaneous System Information @@ -2208,7 +3181,7 @@ Miscellaneous System Information included in ``confstr_names``, an :exc:`OSError` is raised with :const:`errno.EINVAL` for the error number. - Availability: Unix + Availability: Unix. .. data:: confstr_names @@ -2330,6 +3303,6 @@ Miscellaneous Functions This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness source. The returned data should be unpredictable enough for cryptographic applications, - though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation. On a UNIX-like + though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation. On a Unix-like system this will query /dev/urandom, and on Windows it will use CryptGenRandom. If a randomness source is not found, :exc:`NotImplementedError` will be raised. diff --git a/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst b/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst index ed84413..3002700 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst @@ -38,6 +38,10 @@ the standard audio interface for Linux and recent versions of FreeBSD. This probably all warrants a footnote or two, but I don't understand things well enough right now to write it! --GPW +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Operations in this module now raise :exc:`OSError` where :exc:`IOError` + was raised. + .. seealso:: @@ -56,7 +60,7 @@ the standard audio interface for Linux and recent versions of FreeBSD. what went wrong. (If :mod:`ossaudiodev` receives an error from a system call such as - :c:func:`open`, :c:func:`write`, or :c:func:`ioctl`, it raises :exc:`IOError`. + :c:func:`open`, :c:func:`write`, or :c:func:`ioctl`, it raises :exc:`OSError`. Errors detected directly by :mod:`ossaudiodev` result in :exc:`OSSAudioError`.) (For backwards compatibility, the exception class is also available as @@ -169,7 +173,7 @@ The following methods each map to exactly one :func:`ioctl` system call. The correspondence is obvious: for example, :meth:`setfmt` corresponds to the ``SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT`` ioctl, and :meth:`sync` to ``SNDCTL_DSP_SYNC`` (this can be useful when consulting the OSS documentation). If the underlying -:func:`ioctl` fails, they all raise :exc:`IOError`. +:func:`ioctl` fails, they all raise :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: oss_audio_device.nonblock() @@ -345,7 +349,7 @@ The mixer object provides two file-like methods: .. method:: oss_mixer_device.close() This method closes the open mixer device file. Any further attempts to use the - mixer after this file is closed will raise an :exc:`IOError`. + mixer after this file is closed will raise an :exc:`OSError`. .. method:: oss_mixer_device.fileno() @@ -404,7 +408,7 @@ The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing: returned, but both volumes are the same. Raises :exc:`OSSAudioError` if an invalid control was is specified, or - :exc:`IOError` if an unsupported control is specified. + :exc:`OSError` if an unsupported control is specified. .. method:: oss_mixer_device.set(control, (left, right)) @@ -428,7 +432,7 @@ The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing: .. method:: oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc(bitmask) Call this function to specify a recording source. Returns a bitmask indicating - the new recording source (or sources) if successful; raises :exc:`IOError` if an + the new recording source (or sources) if successful; raises :exc:`OSError` if an invalid source was specified. To set the current recording source to the microphone input:: diff --git a/Doc/library/pdb.rst b/Doc/library/pdb.rst index 1e9de63..f4e37ac 100644 --- a/Doc/library/pdb.rst +++ b/Doc/library/pdb.rst @@ -38,6 +38,11 @@ of the debugger is:: > <string>(1)?() (Pdb) +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Tab-completion via the :mod:`readline` module is available for commands and + command arguments, e.g. the current global and local names are offered as + arguments of the ``print`` command. + :file:`pdb.py` can also be invoked as a script to debug other scripts. For example:: diff --git a/Doc/library/pickle.rst b/Doc/library/pickle.rst index a1f9af2..287a08b 100644 --- a/Doc/library/pickle.rst +++ b/Doc/library/pickle.rst @@ -287,6 +287,29 @@ The :mod:`pickle` module exports two classes, :class:`Pickler` and See :ref:`pickle-persistent` for details and examples of uses. + .. attribute:: dispatch_table + + A pickler object's dispatch table is a registry of *reduction + functions* of the kind which can be declared using + :func:`copyreg.pickle`. It is a mapping whose keys are classes + and whose values are reduction functions. A reduction function + takes a single argument of the associated class and should + conform to the same interface as a :meth:`~object.__reduce__` + method. + + By default, a pickler object will not have a + :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute, and it will instead use the + global dispatch table managed by the :mod:`copyreg` module. + However, to customize the pickling for a specific pickler object + one can set the :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute to a dict-like + object. Alternatively, if a subclass of :class:`Pickler` has a + :attr:`dispatch_table` attribute then this will be used as the + default dispatch table for instances of that class. + + See :ref:`pickle-dispatch` for usage examples. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. attribute:: fast Deprecated. Enable fast mode if set to a true value. The fast mode @@ -577,6 +600,44 @@ pickle external objects by reference. .. literalinclude:: ../includes/dbpickle.py +.. _pickle-dispatch: + +Dispatch Tables +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing +any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a +pickler with a private dispatch table. + +The global dispatch table managed by the :mod:`copyreg` module is +available as :data:`copyreg.dispatch_table`. Therefore, one may +choose to use a modified copy of :data:`copyreg.dispatch_table` as a +private dispatch table. + +For example :: + + f = io.BytesIO() + p = pickle.Pickler(f) + p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy() + p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass + +creates an instance of :class:`pickle.Pickler` with a private dispatch +table which handles the ``SomeClass`` class specially. Alternatively, +the code :: + + class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler): + dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy() + dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass + f = io.BytesIO() + p = MyPickler(f) + +does the same, but all instances of ``MyPickler`` will by default +share the same dispatch table. The equivalent code using the +:mod:`copyreg` module is :: + + copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass) + f = io.BytesIO() + p = pickle.Pickler(f) .. _pickle-state: diff --git a/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst b/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst index 3118ff2..22d44eb 100644 --- a/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst +++ b/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst @@ -56,21 +56,32 @@ support. Note that :class:`ImpImporter` does not currently support being used by placement on :data:`sys.meta_path`. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism + is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in :mod:`importlib` + .. class:: ImpLoader(fullname, file, filename, etc) :pep:`302` Loader that wraps Python's "classic" import algorithm. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This emulation is no longer needed, as the standard import mechanism + is now fully PEP 302 compliant and available in :mod:`importlib` + .. function:: find_loader(fullname) - Find a :pep:`302` "loader" object for *fullname*. + Retrieve a :pep:`302` module loader for the given *fullname*. - If *fullname* contains dots, path must be the containing package's - ``__path__``. Returns ``None`` if the module cannot be found or imported. - This function uses :func:`iter_importers`, and is thus subject to the same - limitations regarding platform-specific special import locations such as the - Windows registry. + This is a convenience wrapper around :func:`importlib.find_loader` that + sets the *path* argument correctly when searching for submodules, and + also ensures parent packages (if any) are imported before searching for + submodules. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. .. function:: get_importer(path_item) @@ -80,13 +91,13 @@ support. The returned importer is cached in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` if it was newly created by a path hook. - If there is no importer, a wrapper around the basic import machinery is - returned. This wrapper is never inserted into the importer cache (``None`` - is inserted instead). - The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of :data:`sys.path_hooks` is necessary. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. + .. function:: get_loader(module_or_name) @@ -102,46 +113,52 @@ support. limitations regarding platform-specific special import locations such as the Windows registry. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. + .. function:: iter_importers(fullname='') Yield :pep:`302` importers for the given module name. - If fullname contains a '.', the importers will be for the package containing - fullname, otherwise they will be importers for :data:`sys.meta_path`, - :data:`sys.path`, and Python's "classic" import machinery, in that order. If - the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side effect - of invoking this function. + If fullname contains a '.', the importers will be for the package + containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top level + importers (i.e. those on both sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks). - Non-:pep:`302` mechanisms (e.g. the Windows registry) used by the standard - import machinery to find files in alternative locations are partially - supported, but are searched *after* :data:`sys.path`. Normally, these - locations are searched *before* :data:`sys.path`, preventing :data:`sys.path` - entries from shadowing them. + If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side + effect of invoking this function. - For this to cause a visible difference in behaviour, there must be a module - or package name that is accessible via both :data:`sys.path` and one of the - non-:pep:`302` file system mechanisms. In this case, the emulation will find - the former version, while the builtin import mechanism will find the latter. + If no module name is specified, all top level importers are produced. - Items of the following types can be affected by this discrepancy: - ``imp.C_EXTENSION``, ``imp.PY_SOURCE``, ``imp.PY_COMPILED``, - ``imp.PKG_DIRECTORY``. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. .. function:: iter_modules(path=None, prefix='') - Yields ``(module_loader, name, ispkg)`` for all submodules on *path*, or, if + Yields ``(module_finder, name, ispkg)`` for all submodules on *path*, or, if path is ``None``, all top-level modules on ``sys.path``. *path* should be either ``None`` or a list of paths to look for modules in. *prefix* is a string to output on the front of every module name on output. + .. note:: + Only works for a :term:`finder` which defines an ``iter_modules()`` + method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides + implementations for :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` and + :class:`zipimport.zipimporter`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. + .. function:: walk_packages(path=None, prefix='', onerror=None) - Yields ``(module_loader, name, ispkg)`` for all modules recursively on + Yields ``(module_finder, name, ispkg)`` for all modules recursively on *path*, or, if path is ``None``, all accessible modules. *path* should be either ``None`` or a list of paths to look for modules in. @@ -166,6 +183,16 @@ support. # list all submodules of ctypes walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.') + .. note:: + Only works for a :term:`finder` which defines an ``iter_modules()`` + method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides + implementations for :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` and + :class:`zipimport.zipimporter`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Updated to be based directly on :mod:`importlib` rather than relying + on the package internal PEP 302 import emulation. + .. function:: get_data(package, resource) diff --git a/Doc/library/platform.rst b/Doc/library/platform.rst index 157ac3a..a6a98f1 100644 --- a/Doc/library/platform.rst +++ b/Doc/library/platform.rst @@ -30,8 +30,8 @@ Cross Platform returned as strings. Values that cannot be determined are returned as given by the parameter presets. - If bits is given as ``''``, the :c:func:`sizeof(pointer)` (or - :c:func:`sizeof(long)` on Python version < 1.5.2) is used as indicator for the + If bits is given as ``''``, the ``sizeof(pointer)`` (or + ``sizeof(long)`` on Python version < 1.5.2) is used as indicator for the supported pointer size. The function relies on the system's :file:`file` command to do the actual work. @@ -158,14 +158,20 @@ Cross Platform .. function:: uname() - Fairly portable uname interface. Returns a tuple of strings ``(system, node, - release, version, machine, processor)`` identifying the underlying platform. + Fairly portable uname interface. Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple` + containing six attributes: :attr:`system`, :attr:`node`, :attr:`release`, + :attr:`version`, :attr:`machine`, and :attr:`processor`. - Note that unlike the :func:`os.uname` function this also returns possible - processor information as additional tuple entry. + Note that this adds a sixth attribute (:attr:`processor`) not present + in the :func:`os.uname` result. Also, the attribute names are different + for the first two attributes; :func:`os.uname` names them + :attr:`sysname` and :attr:`nodename`. Entries which cannot be determined are set to ``''``. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple. + Java Platform ------------- @@ -214,6 +220,10 @@ Win95/98 specific preferring :func:`win32pipe.popen`. On Windows NT, :func:`win32pipe.popen` should work; on Windows 9x it hangs due to bugs in the MS C library. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + This function is obsolete. Use the :mod:`subprocess` module. Check + especially the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section. + Mac OS Platform --------------- diff --git a/Doc/library/random.rst b/Doc/library/random.rst index 1cd4d26..55c9d70 100644 --- a/Doc/library/random.rst +++ b/Doc/library/random.rst @@ -43,6 +43,12 @@ The :mod:`random` module also provides the :class:`SystemRandom` class which uses the system function :func:`os.urandom` to generate random numbers from sources provided by the operating system. +.. warning:: + + The generators of the :mod:`random` module should not be used for security + purposes. Use :func:`ssl.RAND_bytes` if you require a cryptographically + secure pseudorandom number generator. + Bookkeeping functions: @@ -145,6 +151,9 @@ Functions for sequences: argument. This is especially fast and space efficient for sampling from a large population: ``sample(range(10000000), 60)``. + If the sample size is larger than the population size, a :exc:`ValueError` + is raised. + The following functions generate specific real-valued distributions. Function parameters are named after the corresponding variables in the distribution's equation, as used in common mathematical practice; most of these equations can diff --git a/Doc/library/re.rst b/Doc/library/re.rst index 8397aad..07623c9 100644 --- a/Doc/library/re.rst +++ b/Doc/library/re.rst @@ -414,17 +414,24 @@ Most of the standard escapes supported by Python string literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:: \a \b \f \n - \r \t \v \x - \\ + \r \t \u \U + \v \x \\ (Note that ``\b`` is used to represent word boundaries, and means "backspace" only inside character classes.) +``'\u'`` and ``'\U'`` escape sequences are only recognized in Unicode +patterns. In bytes patterns they are not treated specially. + Octal escapes are included in a limited form. If the first digit is a 0, or if there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape. Otherwise, it is a group reference. As for string literals, octal escapes are always at most three digits in length. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The ``'\u'`` and ``'\U'`` escape sequences have been added. + + .. _contents-of-module-re: @@ -684,9 +691,12 @@ form. .. function:: escape(string) - Return *string* with all non-alphanumerics backslashed; this is useful if you - want to match an arbitrary literal string that may have regular expression - metacharacters in it. + Escape all the characters in pattern except ASCII letters, numbers and ``'_'``. + This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may + have regular expression metacharacters in it. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The ``'_'`` character is no longer escaped. .. function:: purge() diff --git a/Doc/library/readline.rst b/Doc/library/readline.rst index ab55197..1134619 100644 --- a/Doc/library/readline.rst +++ b/Doc/library/readline.rst @@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ normally be executed automatically during interactive sessions from the user's histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".pyhist") try: readline.read_history_file(histfile) - except IOError: + except FileNotFoundError: pass import atexit atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile) @@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ support history save/restore. :: if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"): try: readline.read_history_file(histfile) - except IOError: + except FileNotFoundError: pass atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile) diff --git a/Doc/library/resource.rst b/Doc/library/resource.rst index c16b013..03a7cb5 100644 --- a/Doc/library/resource.rst +++ b/Doc/library/resource.rst @@ -14,13 +14,15 @@ resources utilized by a program. Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and to request usage information about either the current process or its children. -A single exception is defined for errors: +An :exc:`OSError` is raised on syscall failure. .. exception:: error - The functions described below may raise this error if the underlying system call - failures unexpectedly. + A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`. Resource Limits diff --git a/Doc/library/sched.rst b/Doc/library/sched.rst index 000dba0..d6c86c7 100644 --- a/Doc/library/sched.rst +++ b/Doc/library/sched.rst @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ The :mod:`sched` module defines a class which implements a general purpose event scheduler: -.. class:: scheduler(timefunc, delayfunc) +.. class:: scheduler(timefunc=time.time, delayfunc=time.sleep) The :class:`scheduler` class defines a generic interface to scheduling events. It needs two functions to actually deal with the "outside world" --- *timefunc* @@ -25,6 +25,12 @@ scheduler: event is run to allow other threads an opportunity to run in multi-threaded applications. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timefunc* and *delayfunc* parameters are optional. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :class:`scheduler` class can be safely used in multi-threaded + environments. + Example:: >>> import sched, time @@ -44,33 +50,6 @@ Example:: From print_time 930343700.273 930343700.276 -In multi-threaded environments, the :class:`scheduler` class has limitations -with respect to thread-safety, inability to insert a new task before -the one currently pending in a running scheduler, and holding up the main -thread until the event queue is empty. Instead, the preferred approach -is to use the :class:`threading.Timer` class instead. - -Example:: - - >>> import time - >>> from threading import Timer - >>> def print_time(): - ... print("From print_time", time.time()) - ... - >>> def print_some_times(): - ... print(time.time()) - ... Timer(5, print_time, ()).start() - ... Timer(10, print_time, ()).start() - ... time.sleep(11) # sleep while time-delay events execute - ... print(time.time()) - ... - >>> print_some_times() - 930343690.257 - From print_time 930343695.274 - From print_time 930343700.273 - 930343701.301 - - .. _scheduler-objects: Scheduler Objects @@ -79,26 +58,38 @@ Scheduler Objects :class:`scheduler` instances have the following methods and attributes: -.. method:: scheduler.enterabs(time, priority, action, argument) +.. method:: scheduler.enterabs(time, priority, action, argument=[], kwargs={}) Schedule a new event. The *time* argument should be a numeric type compatible with the return value of the *timefunc* function passed to the constructor. Events scheduled for the same *time* will be executed in the order of their *priority*. - Executing the event means executing ``action(*argument)``. *argument* must be a - sequence holding the parameters for *action*. + Executing the event means executing ``action(*argument, **kwargs)``. + *argument* must be a sequence holding the parameters for *action*. + *kwargs* must be a dictionary holding the keyword parameters for *action*. Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation of the event (see :meth:`cancel`). + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *argument* parameter is optional. -.. method:: scheduler.enter(delay, priority, action, argument) + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + *kwargs* parameter was added. + + +.. method:: scheduler.enter(delay, priority, action, argument=[], kwargs={}) Schedule an event for *delay* more time units. Other than the relative time, the other arguments, the effect and the return value are the same as those for :meth:`enterabs`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *argument* parameter is optional. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + *kwargs* parameter was added. .. method:: scheduler.cancel(event) @@ -111,12 +102,16 @@ Scheduler Objects Return true if the event queue is empty. -.. method:: scheduler.run() +.. method:: scheduler.run(blocking=True) - Run all scheduled events. This function will wait (using the :func:`delayfunc` + Run all scheduled events. This method will wait (using the :func:`delayfunc` function passed to the constructor) for the next event, then execute it and so on until there are no more scheduled events. + If *blocking* is False executes the scheduled events due to expire soonest + (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled call in the + scheduler (if any). + Either *action* or *delayfunc* can raise an exception. In either case, the scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate the exception. If an exception is raised by *action*, the event will not be attempted in future calls @@ -127,6 +122,9 @@ Scheduler Objects the calling code is responsible for canceling events which are no longer pertinent. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + *blocking* parameter was added. + .. attribute:: scheduler.queue Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the order they diff --git a/Doc/library/select.rst b/Doc/library/select.rst index a450ec2..4e60f4a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/select.rst +++ b/Doc/library/select.rst @@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ This module provides access to the :c:func:`select` and :c:func:`poll` functions -available in most operating systems, :c:func:`epoll` available on Linux 2.5+ and +available in most operating systems, :c:func:`devpoll` available on +Solaris and derivatives, :c:func:`epoll` available on Linux 2.5+ and :c:func:`kqueue` available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets; on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in particular, on Unix, it works on pipes). @@ -18,17 +19,38 @@ The module defines the following: .. exception:: error - The exception raised when an error occurs. The accompanying value is a pair - containing the numeric error code from :c:data:`errno` and the corresponding - string, as would be printed by the C function :c:func:`perror`. + A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`. -.. function:: epoll(sizehint=-1) - (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Returns an edge polling object, - which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O events; see - section :ref:`epoll-objects` below for the methods supported by epolling - objects. +.. function:: devpoll() + + (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.) Returns a ``/dev/poll`` + polling object; see section :ref:`devpoll-objects` below for the + methods supported by devpoll objects. + + :c:func:`devpoll` objects are linked to the number of file + descriptors allowed at the time of instantiation. If your program + reduces this value, :c:func:`devpoll` will fail. If your program + increases this value, :c:func:`devpoll` may return an + incomplete list of active file descriptors. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: epoll(sizehint=-1, flags=0) + + (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object, + which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O + events. *sizehint* is deprecated and completely ignored. *flags* can be set + to :const:`EPOLL_CLOEXEC`, which causes the epoll descriptor to be closed + automatically when :func:`os.execve` is called. See section + :ref:`epoll-objects` below for the methods supported by epolling objects. + + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *flags* parameter. .. function:: poll() @@ -106,6 +128,74 @@ The module defines the following: .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. _devpoll-objects: + +``/dev/poll`` Polling Objects +---------------------------------------------- + + http://developers.sun.com/solaris/articles/using_devpoll.html + http://developers.sun.com/solaris/articles/polling_efficient.html + +Solaris and derivatives have ``/dev/poll``. While :c:func:`select` is +O(highest file descriptor) and :c:func:`poll` is O(number of file +descriptors), ``/dev/poll`` is O(active file descriptors). + +``/dev/poll`` behaviour is very close to the standard :c:func:`poll` +object. + + +.. method:: devpoll.register(fd[, eventmask]) + + Register a file descriptor with the polling object. Future calls to the + :meth:`poll` method will then check whether the file descriptor has any pending + I/O events. *fd* can be either an integer, or an object with a :meth:`fileno` + method that returns an integer. File objects implement :meth:`fileno`, so they + can also be used as the argument. + + *eventmask* is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to + check for. The constants are the same that with :c:func:`poll` + object. The default value is a combination of the constants :const:`POLLIN`, + :const:`POLLPRI`, and :const:`POLLOUT`. + + .. warning:: + + Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an + error, but the result is undefined. The appropiate action is to + unregister or modify it first. This is an important difference + compared with :c:func:`poll`. + + +.. method:: devpoll.modify(fd[, eventmask]) + + This method does an :meth:`unregister` followed by a + :meth:`register`. It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same + explicitly. + + +.. method:: devpoll.unregister(fd) + + Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object. Just like the + :meth:`register` method, *fd* can be an integer or an object with a + :meth:`fileno` method that returns an integer. + + Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is + safely ignored. + + +.. method:: devpoll.poll([timeout]) + + Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly-empty list + containing ``(fd, event)`` 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or + errors to report. *fd* is the file descriptor, and *event* is a bitmask with + bits set for the reported events for that descriptor --- :const:`POLLIN` for + waiting input, :const:`POLLOUT` to indicate that the descriptor can be written + to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file + descriptors had any events to report. If *timeout* is given, it specifies the + length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before + returning. If *timeout* is omitted, -1, or :const:`None`, the call will + block until there is an event for this poll object. + + .. _epoll-objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects @@ -165,11 +255,6 @@ Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object. - .. note:: - - Registering a file descriptor that's already registered raises an - IOError -- contrary to :ref:`poll-objects`'s register. - .. method:: epoll.modify(fd, eventmask) diff --git a/Doc/library/shlex.rst b/Doc/library/shlex.rst index 0113fb7..941e090 100644 --- a/Doc/library/shlex.rst +++ b/Doc/library/shlex.rst @@ -34,6 +34,40 @@ The :mod:`shlex` module defines the following functions: passing ``None`` for *s* will read the string to split from standard input. + +.. function:: quote(s) + + Return a shell-escaped version of the string *s*. The returned value is a + string that can safely be used as one token in a shell command line, for + cases where you cannot use a list. + + This idiom would be unsafe:: + + >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~' + >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename) + >>> print(command) # executed by a shell: boom! + ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~ + + :func:`quote` lets you plug the security hole:: + + >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename)) + >>> print(command) + ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~' + >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command)) + >>> print(remote_command) + ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"'' + + The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with :func:`split`: + + >>> remote_command = split(remote_command) + >>> remote_command + ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"] + >>> command = split(remote_command[-1]) + >>> command + ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~'] + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The :mod:`shlex` module defines the following class: @@ -282,5 +316,4 @@ parsing rules. * EOF is signaled with a :const:`None` value; -* Quoted empty strings (``''``) are allowed; - +* Quoted empty strings (``''``) are allowed. diff --git a/Doc/library/shutil.rst b/Doc/library/shutil.rst index 18f6485..8ed7e9e 100644 --- a/Doc/library/shutil.rst +++ b/Doc/library/shutil.rst @@ -47,45 +47,76 @@ Directory and files operations be copied. -.. function:: copyfile(src, dst) +.. function:: copyfile(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True) Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named *src* to a file named - *dst*. *dst* must be the complete target file name; look at + *dst* and return *dst*. *dst* must be the complete target file name; look at :func:`shutil.copy` for a copy that accepts a target directory path. If *src* and *dst* are the same files, :exc:`Error` is raised. - The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an :exc:`IOError` exception + + The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an :exc:`OSError` exception will be raised. If *dst* already exists, it will be replaced. Special files such as character or block devices and pipes cannot be copied with this function. *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings. + If *follow_symlinks* is false and *src* is a symbolic link, + a new symbolic link will be created instead of copying the + file *src* points to. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`. + Added *follow_symlinks* argument. + Now returns *dst*. -.. function:: copymode(src, dst) +.. function:: copymode(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True) Copy the permission bits from *src* to *dst*. The file contents, owner, and - group are unaffected. *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings. + group are unaffected. *src* and *dst* are path names given as strings. If + *follow_symlinks* is false, *src* is a symbolic link, and the operating + system supports modes for symbolic links (for example BSD-based ones), + the mode of the link will be copied. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added *follow_symlinks* argument. -.. function:: copystat(src, dst) +.. function:: copystat(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True) Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time, and flags from *src* to *dst*. The file contents, owner, and group are unaffected. *src* - and *dst* are path names given as strings. + and *dst* are path names given as strings. If *follow_symlinks* is false, and + *src* and *dst* are both symbolic links, the stats of the link will be copied as + far as the platform allows. On Linux, :func:`copystat` also copies the + "extended attributes" where possible. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added *follow_symlinks* argument and support for Linux extended attributes. -.. function:: copy(src, dst) +.. function:: copy(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True) - Copy the file *src* to the file or directory *dst*. If *dst* is a directory, a + Copy the file *src* to the file or directory *dst* and return the file's + destination. If *dst* is a directory, a file with the same basename as *src* is created (or overwritten) in the directory specified. Permission bits are copied. *src* and *dst* are path - names given as strings. + names given as strings. If *follow_symlinks* is false, symbolic + links won't be followed but recreated instead -- this resembles GNU's + :program:`cp -P`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added *follow_symlinks* argument. + Now returns *dst*. -.. function:: copy2(src, dst) +.. function:: copy2(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True) - Similar to :func:`shutil.copy`, but metadata is copied as well -- in fact, - this is just :func:`shutil.copy` followed by :func:`copystat`. This is - similar to the Unix command :program:`cp -p`. + Similar to :func:`shutil.copy`, including that the destination is + returned, but metadata is copied as well. This is similar to the Unix + command :program:`cp -p`. If *follow_symlinks* is false, + symbolic links won't be followed but recreated instead -- this resembles + GNU's :program:`cp -P`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added *follow_symlinks* argument, try to copy extended + file system attributes too (currently Linux only). + Now returns *dst*. .. function:: ignore_patterns(\*patterns) @@ -96,16 +127,17 @@ Directory and files operations .. function:: copytree(src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None, copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False) - Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at *src*. The destination + Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at *src*, returning the + destination directory. The destination directory, named by *dst*, must not already exist; it will be created as well as missing parent directories. Permissions and times of directories are copied with :func:`copystat`, individual files are copied using :func:`shutil.copy2`. If *symlinks* is true, symbolic links in the source tree are represented as - symbolic links in the new tree, but the metadata of the original links is NOT - copied; if false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files - are copied to the new tree. + symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of the original links will + be copied as far as the platform allows; if false or omitted, the contents + and metadata of the linked files are copied to the new tree. When *symlinks* is false, if the file pointed by the symlink doesn't exist, a exception will be added in the list of errors raised in @@ -129,13 +161,15 @@ Directory and files operations If *copy_function* is given, it must be a callable that will be used to copy each file. It will be called with the source path and the destination path as arguments. By default, :func:`shutil.copy2` is used, but any function - that supports the same signature (like :func:`copy`) can be used. + that supports the same signature (like :func:`shutil.copy`) can be used. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Copy metadata when *symlinks* is false. + Now returns *dst*. .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added the *copy_function* argument to be able to provide a custom copy function. - - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added the *ignore_dangling_symlinks* argument to silent dangling symlinks errors when *symlinks* is false. @@ -150,19 +184,42 @@ Directory and files operations handled by calling a handler specified by *onerror* or, if that is omitted, they raise an exception. + .. note:: + + On platforms that support the necessary fd-based functions a symlink + attack resistant version of :func:`rmtree` is used by default. On other + platforms, the :func:`rmtree` implementation is susceptible to a symlink + attack: given proper timing and circumstances, attackers can manipulate + symlinks on the filesystem to delete files they wouldn't be able to access + otherwise. Applications can use the :data:`rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks` + function attribute to determine which case applies. + If *onerror* is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three - parameters: *function*, *path*, and *excinfo*. The first parameter, - *function*, is the function which raised the exception; it will be - :func:`os.path.islink`, :func:`os.listdir`, :func:`os.remove` or - :func:`os.rmdir`. The second parameter, *path*, will be the path name passed - to *function*. The third parameter, *excinfo*, will be the exception - information return by :func:`sys.exc_info`. Exceptions raised by *onerror* - will not be caught. + parameters: *function*, *path*, and *excinfo*. + + The first parameter, *function*, is the function which raised the exception; + it depends on the platform and implementation. The second parameter, + *path*, will be the path name passed to *function*. The third parameter, + *excinfo*, will be the exception information returned by + :func:`sys.exc_info`. Exceptions raised by *onerror* will not be caught. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added a symlink attack resistant version that is used automatically + if platform supports fd-based functions. + + .. attribute:: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks + + Indicates whether the current platform and implementation provides a + symlink attack resistant version of :func:`rmtree`. Currently this is + only true for platforms supporting fd-based directory access functions. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. function:: move(src, dst) - Recursively move a file or directory (*src*) to another location (*dst*). + Recursively move a file or directory (*src*) to another location (*dst*) + and return the destination. If the destination is a directory or a symlink to a directory, then *src* is moved inside that directory. @@ -173,7 +230,61 @@ Directory and files operations If the destination is on the current filesystem, then :func:`os.rename` is used. Otherwise, *src* is copied (using :func:`shutil.copy2`) to *dst* and - then removed. + then removed. In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of + *src* will be created in or as *dst* and *src* will be removed. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added explicit symlink handling for foreign filesystems, thus adapting + it to the behavior of GNU's :program:`mv`. + Now returns *dst*. + +.. function:: disk_usage(path) + + Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a :term:`named tuple` + with the attributes *total*, *used* and *free*, which are the amount of + total, used and free space, in bytes. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + Availability: Unix, Windows. + +.. function:: chown(path, user=None, group=None) + + Change owner *user* and/or *group* of the given *path*. + + *user* can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to *group*. At + least one argument is required. + + See also :func:`os.chown`, the underlying function. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: which(cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None) + + Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given *cmd* was + called. If no *cmd* would be called, return ``None``. + + *mode* is a permission mask passed a to :func:`os.access`, by default + determining if the file exists and executable. + + When no *path* is specified, the results of :func:`os.environ` are used, + returning either the "PATH" value or a fallback of :attr:`os.defpath`. + + On Windows, the current directory is always prepended to the *path* whether + or not you use the default or provide your own, which is the behavior the + command shell uses when finding executables. Additionaly, when finding the + *cmd* in the *path*, the ``PATHEXT`` environment variable is checked. For + example, if you call ``shutil.which("python")``, :func:`which` will search + ``PATHEXT`` to know that it should look for ``python.exe`` within the *path* + directories. For example, on Windows:: + + >>> shutil.which("python") + 'c:\\python33\\python.exe' + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. exception:: Error @@ -186,7 +297,7 @@ Directory and files operations .. _shutil-copytree-example: copytree example -:::::::::::::::: +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ This example is the implementation of the :func:`copytree` function, described above, with the docstring omitted. It demonstrates many of the other functions @@ -250,6 +361,8 @@ Another example that uses the *ignore* argument to add a logging call:: Archiving operations -------------------- +.. versionadded:: 3.2 + High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files are also provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. @@ -277,8 +390,6 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. *logger* must be an object compatible with :pep:`282`, usually an instance of :class:`logging.Logger`. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: get_archive_formats() @@ -295,8 +406,6 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any existing formats, by using :func:`register_archive_format`. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: register_archive_format(name, function, [extra_args, [description]]) @@ -309,15 +418,11 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. *description* is used by :func:`get_archive_formats` which returns the list of archivers. Defaults to an empty list. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: unregister_archive_format(name) Remove the archive format *name* from the list of supported formats. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: unpack_archive(filename[, extract_dir[, format]]) @@ -332,8 +437,6 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. and see if an unpacker was registered for that extension. In case none is found, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: register_unpack_format(name, extensions, function[, extra_args[, description]]) @@ -351,15 +454,11 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. *description* can be provided to describe the format, and will be returned by the :func:`get_unpack_formats` function. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: unregister_unpack_format(name) Unregister an unpack format. *name* is the name of the format. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. function:: get_unpack_formats() @@ -377,13 +476,11 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules. You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any existing formats, by using :func:`register_unpack_format`. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. _shutil-archiving-example: Archiving example -::::::::::::::::: +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ In this example, we create a gzip'ed tar-file archive containing all files found in the :file:`.ssh` directory of the user:: @@ -406,3 +503,36 @@ The resulting archive contains:: -rw------- tarek/staff 1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff 397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff 37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts + + +Querying the size of the output terminal +---------------------------------------- + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: get_terminal_size(fallback=(columns, lines)) + + Get the size of the terminal window. + + For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ``COLUMNS`` + and ``LINES`` respectively, is checked. If the variable is defined and + the value is a positive integer, it is used. + + When ``COLUMNS`` or ``LINES`` is not defined, which is the common case, + the terminal connected to :data:`sys.__stdout__` is queried + by invoking :func:`os.get_terminal_size`. + + If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because + the system doesn't support querying, or because we are not + connected to a terminal, the value given in ``fallback`` parameter + is used. ``fallback`` defaults to ``(80, 24)`` which is the default + size used by many terminal emulators. + + The value returned is a named tuple of type :class:`os.terminal_size`. + + See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, + `Other Environment Variables`_. + +.. _`Other Environment Variables`: + http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003 + diff --git a/Doc/library/signal.rst b/Doc/library/signal.rst index d1cae13..2a472fe 100644 --- a/Doc/library/signal.rst +++ b/Doc/library/signal.rst @@ -44,6 +44,9 @@ This has consequences: signal handlers will be called when the calculation finishes. +.. _signals-and-threads: + + Signals and threads ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @@ -131,6 +134,28 @@ The variables defined in the :mod:`signal` module are: in user and kernel space. SIGPROF is delivered upon expiration. +.. data:: SIG_BLOCK + + A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask` + indicating that signals are to be blocked. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: SIG_UNBLOCK + + A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask` + indicating that signals are to be unblocked. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: SIG_SETMASK + + A possible value for the *how* parameter to :func:`pthread_sigmask` + indicating that the signal mask is to be replaced. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + The :mod:`signal` module defines one exception: .. exception:: ItimerError @@ -138,7 +163,11 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines one exception: Raised to signal an error from the underlying :func:`setitimer` or :func:`getitimer` implementation. Expect this error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to :func:`setitimer`. - This error is a subtype of :exc:`IOError`. + This error is a subtype of :exc:`OSError`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + This error used to be a subtype of :exc:`IOError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions: @@ -172,6 +201,65 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions: will then be called. Returns nothing. Not on Windows. (See the Unix man page :manpage:`signal(2)`.) + See also :func:`sigwait`, :func:`sigwaitinfo`, :func:`sigtimedwait` and + :func:`sigpending`. + + +.. function:: pthread_kill(thread_id, signum) + + Send the signal *signum* to the thread *thread_id*, another thread in the + same process as the caller. The target thread can be executing any code + (Python or not). However, if the target thread is executing the Python + interpreter, the Python signal handlers will be :ref:`executed by the main + thread <signals-and-threads>`. Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a particular + Python thread would be to force a running system call to fail with + :exc:`InterruptedError`. + + Use :func:`threading.get_ident()` or the :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident` + attribute of :class:`threading.Thread` objects to get a suitable value + for *thread_id*. + + If *signum* is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is still + performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is still running. + + Availability: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`pthread_kill(3)` for further + information). + + See also :func:`os.kill`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: pthread_sigmask(how, mask) + + Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread. The signal mask + is the set of signals whose delivery is currently blocked for the caller. + Return the old signal mask as a set of signals. + + The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of *how*, as follows. + + * :data:`SIG_BLOCK`: The set of blocked signals is the union of the current + set and the *mask* argument. + * :data:`SIG_UNBLOCK`: The signals in *mask* are removed from the current + set of blocked signals. It is permissible to attempt to unblock a + signal which is not blocked. + * :data:`SIG_SETMASK`: The set of blocked signals is set to the *mask* + argument. + + *mask* is a set of signal numbers (e.g. {:const:`signal.SIGINT`, + :const:`signal.SIGTERM`}). Use ``range(1, signal.NSIG)`` for a full mask + including all signals. + + For example, ``signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])`` reads the + signal mask of the calling thread. + + Availability: Unix. See the man page :manpage:`sigprocmask(3)` and + :manpage:`pthread_sigmask(3)` for further information. + + See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigpending` and :func:`sigwait`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. function:: setitimer(which, seconds[, interval]) @@ -201,13 +289,17 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions: .. function:: set_wakeup_fd(fd) - Set the wakeup fd to *fd*. When a signal is received, a ``'\0'`` byte is - written to the fd. This can be used by a library to wakeup a poll or select - call, allowing the signal to be fully processed. + Set the wakeup file descriptor to *fd*. When a signal is received, the + signal number is written as a single byte into the fd. This can be used by + a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully + processed. The old wakeup fd is returned. *fd* must be non-blocking. It is up to the library to remove any bytes before calling poll or select again. + Use for example ``struct.unpack('%uB' % len(data), data)`` to decode the + signal numbers list. + When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread; attempting to call it from other threads will cause a :exc:`ValueError` exception to be raised. @@ -247,6 +339,73 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions: :const:`SIGTERM`. A :exc:`ValueError` will be raised in any other case. +.. function:: sigpending() + + Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the calling + thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while blocked). Return the + set of the pending signals. + + Availability: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigpending(2)` for further + information). + + See also :func:`pause`, :func:`pthread_sigmask` and :func:`sigwait`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: sigwait(sigset) + + Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the + signals specified in the signal set *sigset*. The function accepts the signal + (removes it from the pending list of signals), and returns the signal number. + + Availability: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigwait(3)` for further + information). + + See also :func:`pause`, :func:`pthread_sigmask`, :func:`sigpending`, + :func:`sigwaitinfo` and :func:`sigtimedwait`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: sigwaitinfo(sigset) + + Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the + signals specified in the signal set *sigset*. The function accepts the + signal and removes it from the pending list of signals. If one of the + signals in *sigset* is already pending for the calling thread, the function + will return immediately with information about that signal. The signal + handler is not called for the delivered signal. The function raises an + :exc:`InterruptedError` if it is interrupted by a signal that is not in + *sigset*. + + The return value is an object representing the data contained in the + :c:type:`siginfo_t` structure, namely: :attr:`si_signo`, :attr:`si_code`, + :attr:`si_errno`, :attr:`si_pid`, :attr:`si_uid`, :attr:`si_status`, + :attr:`si_band`. + + Availability: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigwaitinfo(2)` for further + information). + + See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigwait` and :func:`sigtimedwait`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: sigtimedwait(sigset, timeout) + + Like :func:`sigwaitinfo`, but takes an additional *timeout* argument + specifying a timeout. If *timeout* is specified as :const:`0`, a poll is + performed. Returns :const:`None` if a timeout occurs. + + Availability: Unix (see the man page :manpage:`sigtimedwait(2)` for further + information). + + See also :func:`pause`, :func:`sigwait` and :func:`sigwaitinfo`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. _signal-example: Example @@ -263,7 +422,7 @@ be sent, and the handler raises an exception. :: def handler(signum, frame): print('Signal handler called with signal', signum) - raise IOError("Couldn't open device!") + raise OSError("Couldn't open device!") # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler) diff --git a/Doc/library/site.rst b/Doc/library/site.rst index db96add..3bf8a99 100644 --- a/Doc/library/site.rst +++ b/Doc/library/site.rst @@ -16,7 +16,14 @@ import can be suppressed using the interpreter's :option:`-S` option. .. index:: triple: module; search; path Importing this module will append site-specific paths to the module search path -and add a few builtins. +and add a few builtins, unless :option:`-S` was used. In that case, this module +can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path +or additions to the builtins. To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific +additions, call the :func:`site.main` function. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation even when using + :option:`-S`. .. index:: pair: site-python; directory @@ -31,6 +38,15 @@ Unix and Macintosh). For each of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing directory, and if so, adds it to ``sys.path`` and also inspects the newly added path for configuration files. +If a file named "pyvenv.cfg" exists one directory above sys.executable, +sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and +it is also checked for site-packages and site-python (sys.base_prefix and +sys.base_exec_prefix will always be the "real" prefixes of the Python +installation). If "pyvenv.cfg" (a bootstrap configuration file) contains +the key "include-system-site-packages" set to anything other than "false" +(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will still also be +searched for site-packages; otherwise they won't. + A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form :file:`{name}.pth` and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents are additional items (one per line) to be added to ``sys.path``. Non-existing items @@ -129,8 +145,19 @@ empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of :file:`~/Library/Python/{X.Y}` for Mac framework builds, and :file:`{%APPDATA%}\\Python` for Windows. This value is used by Distutils to compute the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python modules, - etc. for the :ref:`user installation scheme <inst-alt-install-user>`. See - also :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE`. + etc. for the :ref:`user installation scheme <inst-alt-install-user>`. + See also :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE`. + + +.. function:: main() + + Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module search + path. This function is called automatically when this module is imported, + unless the :program:`python` interpreter was started with the :option:`-S` + flag. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to be called unconditionnally. .. function:: addsitedir(sitedir, known_paths=None) diff --git a/Doc/library/smtpd.rst b/Doc/library/smtpd.rst index 48da5d0..6dd477a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/smtpd.rst +++ b/Doc/library/smtpd.rst @@ -20,17 +20,24 @@ specific mail-sending strategies. Additionally the SMTPChannel may be extended to implement very specific interaction behaviour with SMTP clients. +The code supports :RFC:`5321`, plus the :rfc:`1870` SIZE extension. + + SMTPServer Objects ------------------ -.. class:: SMTPServer(localaddr, remoteaddr) +.. class:: SMTPServer(localaddr, remoteaddr, data_size_limit=33554432) Create a new :class:`SMTPServer` object, which binds to local address *localaddr*. It will treat *remoteaddr* as an upstream SMTP relayer. It inherits from :class:`asyncore.dispatcher`, and so will insert itself into :mod:`asyncore`'s event loop on instantiation. + *data_size_limit* specifies the maximum number of bytes that will be + accepted in a ``DATA`` command. A value of ``None`` or ``0`` means no + limit. + .. method:: process_message(peer, mailfrom, rcpttos, data) Raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` exception. Override this in subclasses to @@ -155,11 +162,15 @@ SMTPChannel Objects Command Action taken ======== =================================================================== HELO Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in - :attr:`seen_greeting`. + :attr:`seen_greeting`. Sets server to base command mode. + EHLO Accepts the greeting from the client and stores it in + :attr:`seen_greeting`. Sets server to extended command mode. NOOP Takes no action. QUIT Closes the connection cleanly. MAIL Accepts the "MAIL FROM:" syntax and stores the supplied address as - :attr:`mailfrom`. + :attr:`mailfrom`. In extended command mode, accepts the + :rfc:`1870` SIZE attribute and responds appropriately based on the + value of ``data_size_limit``. RCPT Accepts the "RCPT TO:" syntax and stores the supplied addresses in the :attr:`rcpttos` list. RSET Resets the :attr:`mailfrom`, :attr:`rcpttos`, and @@ -167,4 +178,7 @@ SMTPChannel Objects DATA Sets the internal state to :attr:`DATA` and stores remaining lines from the client in :attr:`received_data` until the terminator "\r\n.\r\n" is received. + HELP Returns minimal information on command syntax + VRFY Returns code 252 (the server doesn't know if the address is valid) + EXPN Reports that the command is not implemented. ======== =================================================================== diff --git a/Doc/library/smtplib.rst b/Doc/library/smtplib.rst index 3101ab7..711981f 100644 --- a/Doc/library/smtplib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/smtplib.rst @@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult :rfc:`821` (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions). -.. class:: SMTP(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[, timeout]) +.. class:: SMTP(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[, timeout], source_address=None) A :class:`SMTP` instance encapsulates an SMTP connection. It has methods that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP operations. If the optional @@ -29,13 +29,34 @@ Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions). raised if the specified host doesn't respond correctly. The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout - setting will be used). + setting will be used). The optional source_address parameter allows to bind to some + specific source address in a machine with multiple network interfaces, + and/or to some specific source TCP port. It takes a 2-tuple (host, port), + for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting. If + omitted (or if host or port are ``''`` and/or 0 respectively) the OS default + behavior will be used. For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect, :meth:`sendmail`, and :meth:`quit` methods. An example is included below. + The :class:`SMTP` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement. When used + like this, the SMTP ``QUIT`` command is issued automatically when the + :keyword:`with` statement exits. E.g.:: -.. class:: SMTP_SSL(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, keyfile=None, certfile=None[, timeout]) + >>> from smtplib import SMTP + >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp: + ... smtp.noop() + ... + (250, b'Ok') + >>> + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for the :keyword:`with` statement was added. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + source_address argument was added. + +.. class:: SMTP_SSL(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, keyfile=None, certfile=None[, timeout], context=None, source_address=None) A :class:`SMTP_SSL` instance behaves exactly the same as instances of :class:`SMTP`. :class:`SMTP_SSL` should be used for situations where SSL is @@ -43,18 +64,33 @@ Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions). not appropriate. If *host* is not specified, the local host is used. If *port* is zero, the standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used. *keyfile* and *certfile* are also optional, and can contain a PEM formatted private key - and certificate chain file for the SSL connection. The optional *timeout* + and certificate chain file for the SSL connection. *context* also optional, can contain + a SSLContext, and is an alternative to keyfile and certfile; If it is specified both + keyfile and certfile must be None. The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting - will be used). + will be used). The optional source_address parameter allows to bind to some + specific source address in a machine with multiple network interfaces, + and/or to some specific source tcp port. It takes a 2-tuple (host, port), + for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting. If + omitted (or if host or port are ``''`` and/or 0 respectively) the OS default + behavior will be used. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *context* was added. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + source_address argument was added. -.. class:: LMTP(host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None) + +.. class:: LMTP(host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None, source_address=None) The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based on the - standard SMTP client. It's common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our :meth:`connect` - method must support that as well as a regular host:port server. To specify a - Unix socket, you must use an absolute path for *host*, starting with a '/'. + standard SMTP client. It's common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our + :meth:`connect` method must support that as well as a regular host:port + server. The optional arguments local_hostname and source_address have the + same meaning as that of SMTP client. To specify a Unix socket, you must use + an absolute path for *host*, starting with a '/'. Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism. When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don't support or require any authentication, but your @@ -242,7 +278,7 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods: No suitable authentication method was found. -.. method:: SMTP.starttls(keyfile=None, certfile=None) +.. method:: SMTP.starttls(keyfile=None, certfile=None, context=None) Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode. All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted. You should then call :meth:`ehlo` @@ -251,6 +287,9 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods: If *keyfile* and *certfile* are provided, these are passed to the :mod:`socket` module's :func:`ssl` function. + Optional *context* parameter is a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` object; This is an alternative to + using a keyfile and a certfile and if specified both *keyfile* and *certfile* should be None. + If there has been no previous ``EHLO`` or ``HELO`` command this session, this method tries ESMTP ``EHLO`` first. @@ -263,6 +302,9 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods: :exc:`RuntimeError` SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *context* was added. + .. method:: SMTP.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=[], rcpt_options=[]) @@ -320,7 +362,8 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods: Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an exception is raised. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 *msg* may be a byte string. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + *msg* may be a byte string. .. method:: SMTP.send_message(msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None, \ diff --git a/Doc/library/socket.rst b/Doc/library/socket.rst index 344a29f..5737b40 100644 --- a/Doc/library/socket.rst +++ b/Doc/library/socket.rst @@ -40,9 +40,23 @@ Socket families Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families are supported by this module. -Socket addresses are represented as follows: - -- A single string is used for the :const:`AF_UNIX` address family. +The address format required by a particular socket object is automatically +selected based on the address family specified when the socket object was +created. Socket addresses are represented as follows: + +- The address of an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket bound to a file system node + is represented as a string, using the file system encoding and the + ``'surrogateescape'`` error handler (see :pep:`383`). An address in + Linux's abstract namespace is returned as a :class:`bytes` object with + an initial null byte; note that sockets in this namespace can + communicate with normal file system sockets, so programs intended to + run on Linux may need to deal with both types of address. A string or + :class:`bytes` object can be used for either type of address when + passing it as an argument. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Previously, :const:`AF_UNIX` socket paths were assumed to use UTF-8 + encoding. - A pair ``(host, port)`` is used for the :const:`AF_INET` address family, where *host* is a string representing either a hostname in Internet domain @@ -80,6 +94,19 @@ Socket addresses are represented as follows: If *addr_type* is :const:`TIPC_ADDR_ID`, then *v1* is the node, *v2* is the reference, and *v3* should be set to 0. +- A tuple ``(interface, )`` is used for the :const:`AF_CAN` address family, + where *interface* is a string representing a network interface name like + ``'can0'``. The network interface name ``''`` can be used to receive packets + from all network interfaces of this family. + +- A string or a tuple ``(id, unit)`` is used for the :const:`SYSPROTO_CONTROL` + protocol of the :const:`PF_SYSTEM` family. The string is the name of a + kernel control using a dynamically-assigned ID. The tuple can be used if ID + and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a registered ID is + used. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + - Certain other address families (:const:`AF_BLUETOOTH`, :const:`AF_PACKET`) support specific representations. @@ -99,8 +126,9 @@ resolution and/or the host configuration. For deterministic behavior use a numeric address in *host* portion. All errors raise exceptions. The normal exceptions for invalid argument types -and out-of-memory conditions can be raised; errors related to socket or address -semantics raise :exc:`socket.error` or one of its subclasses. +and out-of-memory conditions can be raised; starting from Python 3.3, errors +related to socket or address semantics raise :exc:`OSError` or one of its +subclasses (they used to raise :exc:`socket.error`). Non-blocking mode is supported through :meth:`~socket.setblocking`. A generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through @@ -115,20 +143,15 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: .. exception:: error - .. index:: module: errno - - A subclass of :exc:`IOError`, this exception is raised for socket-related - errors. It is recommended that you inspect its ``errno`` attribute to - discriminate between different kinds of errors. + A deprecated alias of :exc:`OSError`. - .. seealso:: - The :mod:`errno` module contains symbolic names for the error codes - defined by the underlying operating system. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Following :pep:`3151`, this class was made an alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. exception:: herror - A subclass of :exc:`socket.error`, this exception is raised for + A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised for address-related errors, i.e. for functions that use *h_errno* in the POSIX C API, including :func:`gethostbyname_ex` and :func:`gethostbyaddr`. The accompanying value is a pair ``(h_errno, string)`` representing an @@ -136,10 +159,12 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: *string* represents the description of *h_errno*, as returned by the :c:func:`hstrerror` C function. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. .. exception:: gaierror - A subclass of :exc:`socket.error`, this exception is raised for + A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised for address-related errors by :func:`getaddrinfo` and :func:`getnameinfo`. The accompanying value is a pair ``(error, string)`` representing an error returned by a library call. *string* represents the description of @@ -147,15 +172,19 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: numeric *error* value will match one of the :const:`EAI_\*` constants defined in this module. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. .. exception:: timeout - A subclass of :exc:`socket.error`, this exception is raised when a timeout + A subclass of :exc:`OSError`, this exception is raised when a timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a prior call to :meth:`~socket.settimeout` (or implicitly through :func:`~socket.setdefaulttimeout`). The accompanying value is a string whose value is currently always "timed out". + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This class was made a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. .. data:: AF_UNIX AF_INET @@ -198,6 +227,7 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: SOMAXCONN MSG_* SOL_* + SCM_* IPPROTO_* IPPORT_* INADDR_* @@ -215,6 +245,32 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: in the Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values are provided. +.. data:: AF_CAN + PF_CAN + SOL_CAN_* + CAN_* + + Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are + also defined in the socket module. + + Availability: Linux >= 2.6.25. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: AF_RDS + PF_RDS + SOL_RDS + RDS_* + + Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are + also defined in the socket module. + + Availability: Linux >= 2.6.30. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. data:: SIO_* RCVALL_* @@ -393,10 +449,15 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol number. The address family should be :const:`AF_INET` (the default), - :const:`AF_INET6` or :const:`AF_UNIX`. The socket type should be - :const:`SOCK_STREAM` (the default), :const:`SOCK_DGRAM` or perhaps one of the - other ``SOCK_`` constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be - omitted in that case. + :const:`AF_INET6`, :const:`AF_UNIX`, :const:`AF_CAN` or :const:`AF_RDS`. The + socket type should be :const:`SOCK_STREAM` (the default), + :const:`SOCK_DGRAM`, :const:`SOCK_RAW` or perhaps one of the other ``SOCK_`` + constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted in that + case or :const:`CAN_RAW` in case the address family is :const:`AF_CAN`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The AF_CAN family was added. + The AF_RDS family was added. .. function:: socketpair([family[, type[, proto]]]) @@ -464,7 +525,7 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: Unix manual page :manpage:`inet(3)` for details. If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid, - :exc:`socket.error` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on + :exc:`OSError` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on the underlying C implementation of :c:func:`inet_aton`. :func:`inet_aton` does not support IPv6, and :func:`inet_pton` should be used @@ -481,7 +542,7 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: argument. If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes in - length, :exc:`socket.error` will be raised. :func:`inet_ntoa` does not + length, :exc:`OSError` will be raised. :func:`inet_ntoa` does not support IPv6, and :func:`inet_ntop` should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support. @@ -495,7 +556,7 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: Supported values for *address_family* are currently :const:`AF_INET` and :const:`AF_INET6`. If the IP address string *ip_string* is invalid, - :exc:`socket.error` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on + :exc:`OSError` will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of *address_family* and the underlying implementation of :c:func:`inet_pton`. @@ -513,11 +574,54 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: Supported values for *address_family* are currently :const:`AF_INET` and :const:`AF_INET6`. If the string *packed_ip* is not the correct length for the specified address family, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised. A - :exc:`socket.error` is raised for errors from the call to :func:`inet_ntop`. + :exc:`OSError` is raised for errors from the call to :func:`inet_ntop`. Availability: Unix (maybe not all platforms). +.. + XXX: Are sendmsg(), recvmsg() and CMSG_*() available on any + non-Unix platforms? The old (obsolete?) 4.2BSD form of the + interface, in which struct msghdr has no msg_control or + msg_controllen members, is not currently supported. + +.. function:: CMSG_LEN(length) + + Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary + data item with associated data of the given *length*. This value + can often be used as the buffer size for :meth:`~socket.recvmsg` to + receive a single item of ancillary data, but :rfc:`3542` requires + portable applications to use :func:`CMSG_SPACE` and thus include + space for padding, even when the item will be the last in the + buffer. Raises :exc:`OverflowError` if *length* is outside the + permissible range of values. + + Availability: most Unix platforms, possibly others. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: CMSG_SPACE(length) + + Return the buffer size needed for :meth:`~socket.recvmsg` to + receive an ancillary data item with associated data of the given + *length*, along with any trailing padding. The buffer space needed + to receive multiple items is the sum of the :func:`CMSG_SPACE` + values for their associated data lengths. Raises + :exc:`OverflowError` if *length* is outside the permissible range + of values. + + Note that some systems might support ancillary data without + providing this function. Also note that setting the buffer size + using the results of this function may not precisely limit the + amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional + data may be able to fit into the padding area. + + Availability: most Unix platforms, possibly others. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: getdefaulttimeout() Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects. A value @@ -533,6 +637,59 @@ The module :mod:`socket` exports the following constants and functions: meanings. +.. function:: sethostname(name) + + Set the machine's hostname to *name*. This will raise a + :exc:`OSError` if you don't have enough rights. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: if_nameindex() + + Return a list of network interface information + (index int, name string) tuples. + :exc:`OSError` if the system call fails. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: if_nametoindex(if_name) + + Return a network interface index number corresponding to an + interface name. + :exc:`OSError` if no interface with the given name exists. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: if_indextoname(if_index) + + Return a network interface name corresponding to a + interface index number. + :exc:`OSError` if no interface with the given index exists. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: fromshare(data) + + Instantiate a socket from data obtained from :meth:`~socket.share`. + The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode. + + Availability: Windows. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. data:: SocketType This is a Python type object that represents the socket object type. It is the @@ -706,6 +863,109 @@ correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets. to zero. (The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see above.) +.. method:: socket.recvmsg(bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]]) + + Receive normal data (up to *bufsize* bytes) and ancillary data from + the socket. The *ancbufsize* argument sets the size in bytes of + the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults + to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received. Appropriate + buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using + :func:`CMSG_SPACE` or :func:`CMSG_LEN`, and items which do not fit + into the buffer might be truncated or discarded. The *flags* + argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for + :meth:`recv`. + + The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(data, ancdata, msg_flags, + address)``. The *data* item is a :class:`bytes` object holding the + non-ancillary data received. The *ancdata* item is a list of zero + or more tuples ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)`` representing + the ancillary data (control messages) received: *cmsg_level* and + *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and + protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a + :class:`bytes` object holding the associated data. The *msg_flags* + item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on + the received message; see your system documentation for details. + If the receiving socket is unconnected, *address* is the address of + the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is + unspecified. + + On some systems, :meth:`sendmsg` and :meth:`recvmsg` can be used to + pass file descriptors between processes over an :const:`AF_UNIX` + socket. When this facility is used (it is often restricted to + :const:`SOCK_STREAM` sockets), :meth:`recvmsg` will return, in its + ancillary data, items of the form ``(socket.SOL_SOCKET, + socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)``, where *fds* is a :class:`bytes` object + representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the + native C :c:type:`int` type. If :meth:`recvmsg` raises an + exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to + close any file descriptors received via this mechanism. + + Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data + items which have been only partially received. If an item appears + to extend beyond the end of the buffer, :meth:`recvmsg` will issue + a :exc:`RuntimeWarning`, and will return the part of it which is + inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the + start of its associated data. + + On systems which support the :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism, the + following function will receive up to *maxfds* file descriptors, + returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors + (while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control + messages being received). See also :meth:`sendmsg`. :: + + import socket, array + + def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds): + fds = array.array("i") # Array of ints + msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize)) + for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata: + if (cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS): + # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end. + fds.fromstring(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)]) + return msg, list(fds) + + Availability: most Unix platforms, possibly others. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. method:: socket.recvmsg_into(buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]]) + + Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as + :meth:`recvmsg` would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a + series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object. The + *buffers* argument must be an iterable of objects that export + writable buffers (e.g. :class:`bytearray` objects); these will be + filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it + has all been written or there are no more buffers. The operating + system may set a limit (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``) + on the number of buffers that can be used. The *ancbufsize* and + *flags* arguments have the same meaning as for :meth:`recvmsg`. + + The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags, + address)``, where *nbytes* is the total number of bytes of + non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and *ancdata*, + *msg_flags* and *address* are the same as for :meth:`recvmsg`. + + Example:: + + >>> import socket + >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair() + >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----') + >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789') + >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------') + >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb') + 22 + >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3]) + (22, [], 0, None) + >>> [b1, b2, b3] + [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')] + + Availability: most Unix platforms, possibly others. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: socket.recvfrom_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]]) Receive data from the socket, writing it into *buffer* instead of creating a @@ -755,6 +1015,41 @@ correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets. above.) +.. method:: socket.sendmsg(buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]]) + + Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the + non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it + into a single message. The *buffers* argument specifies the + non-ancillary data as an iterable of buffer-compatible objects + (e.g. :class:`bytes` objects); the operating system may set a limit + (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``) on the number of buffers + that can be used. The *ancdata* argument specifies the ancillary + data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples + ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)``, where *cmsg_level* and + *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and + protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a + buffer-compatible object holding the associated data. Note that + some systems (in particular, systems without :func:`CMSG_SPACE`) + might support sending only one control message per call. The + *flags* argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for + :meth:`send`. If *address* is supplied and not ``None``, it sets a + destination address for the message. The return value is the + number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent. + + The following function sends the list of file descriptors *fds* + over an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket, on systems which support the + :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism. See also :meth:`recvmsg`. :: + + import socket, array + + def send_fds(sock, msg, fds): + return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))]) + + Availability: most Unix platforms, possibly others. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: socket.setblocking(flag) Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if *flag* is false, the @@ -796,9 +1091,22 @@ correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets. Shut down one or both halves of the connection. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RD`, further receives are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_WR`, further sends are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RDWR`, further sends and receives are - disallowed. Depending on the platform, shutting down one half of the connection - can also close the opposite half (e.g. on Mac OS X, ``shutdown(SHUT_WR)`` does - not allow further reads on the other end of the connection). + disallowed. + + +.. method:: socket.share(process_id) + + :platform: Windows + + Duplacet a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process. The + target process must be provided with *process_id*. The resulting bytes object + can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess + communication and the socket can be recreated there using :func:`fromshare`. + Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since + the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Note that there are no methods :meth:`read` or :meth:`write`; use :meth:`~socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.send` without *flags* argument instead. @@ -943,13 +1251,13 @@ sends traffic to the first one connected successfully. :: af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res try: s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto) - except socket.error as msg: + except OSError as msg: s = None continue try: s.bind(sa) s.listen(1) - except socket.error as msg: + except OSError as msg: s.close() s = None continue @@ -978,12 +1286,12 @@ sends traffic to the first one connected successfully. :: af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res try: s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto) - except socket.error as msg: + except OSError as msg: s = None continue try: s.connect(sa) - except socket.error as msg: + except OSError as msg: s.close() s = None continue @@ -997,7 +1305,7 @@ sends traffic to the first one connected successfully. :: print('Received', repr(data)) -The last example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with raw +The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with raw sockets on Windows. The example requires administrator privileges to modify the interface:: @@ -1022,11 +1330,51 @@ the interface:: # disabled promiscuous mode s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF) +The last example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to a CAN +network. This example might require special priviledge:: + + import socket + import struct + + + # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>) + + can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s" + can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt) + + def build_can_frame(can_id, data): + can_dlc = len(data) + data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00') + return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data) + + def dissect_can_frame(frame): + can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame) + return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc]) + + + # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface + s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW) + s.bind(('vcan0',)) + + while True: + cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size) + + print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf)) + + try: + s.send(cf) + except OSError: + print('Error sending CAN frame') + + try: + s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03')) + except OSError: + print('Error sending CAN frame') Running an example several times with too small delay between executions, could lead to this error:: - socket.error: [Errno 98] Address already in use + OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a ``TIME_WAIT`` state, and can't be immediately reused. diff --git a/Doc/library/socketserver.rst b/Doc/library/socketserver.rst index 5287f17..7dc0cc7 100644 --- a/Doc/library/socketserver.rst +++ b/Doc/library/socketserver.rst @@ -154,9 +154,21 @@ Server Objects .. method:: BaseServer.serve_forever(poll_interval=0.5) Handle requests until an explicit :meth:`shutdown` request. - Poll for shutdown every *poll_interval* seconds. Ignores :attr:`self.timeout`. - If you need to do periodic tasks, do them in another thread. + Poll for shutdown every *poll_interval* seconds. Ignores :attr:`self.timeout`. It also calls + :meth:`service_actions` which may be used by a subclass or Mixin to provide + various cleanup actions. For e.g. ForkingMixin class uses + :meth:`service_actions` to cleanup the zombie child processes. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added service_actions call to the serve_forever method. + + +.. method:: BaseServer.service_actions() + + This is called by the serve_forever loop. This method is can be overridden + by Mixin's to add cleanup or service specific actions. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. method:: BaseServer.shutdown() diff --git a/Doc/library/someos.rst b/Doc/library/someos.rst deleted file mode 100644 index d2009bb..0000000 --- a/Doc/library/someos.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ -.. _someos: - -********************************** -Optional Operating System Services -********************************** - -The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system -features that are available on selected operating systems only. The interfaces -are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces but they are available on -some other systems as well (e.g. Windows). Here's an overview: - - -.. toctree:: - - select.rst - threading.rst - multiprocessing.rst - concurrent.futures.rst - mmap.rst - readline.rst - rlcompleter.rst - dummy_threading.rst - _thread.rst - _dummy_thread.rst diff --git a/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst b/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst index 950da95..e0fd50e 100644 --- a/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst +++ b/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst @@ -369,6 +369,22 @@ Connection Objects method with :const:`None` for *handler*. +.. method:: Connection.set_trace_callback(trace_callback) + + Registers *trace_callback* to be called for each SQL statement that is + actually executed by the SQLite backend. + + The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as string) that + is being executed. The return value of the callback is ignored. Note that + the backend does not only run statements passed to the :meth:`Cursor.execute` + methods. Other sources include the transaction management of the Python + module and the execution of triggers defined in the current database. + + Passing :const:`None` as *trace_callback* will disable the trace callback. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: Connection.enable_load_extension(enabled) This routine allows/disallows the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions @@ -420,10 +436,6 @@ Connection Objects :mod:`sqlite3` module will return Unicode objects for ``TEXT``. If you want to return bytestrings instead, you can set it to :class:`bytes`. - For efficiency reasons, there's also a way to return :class:`str` objects - only for non-ASCII data, and :class:`bytes` otherwise. To activate it, set - this attribute to :const:`sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode`. - You can also set it to any other callable that accepts a single bytestring parameter and returns the resulting object. diff --git a/Doc/library/ssl.rst b/Doc/library/ssl.rst index 0f5cea2..77196e1 100644 --- a/Doc/library/ssl.rst +++ b/Doc/library/ssl.rst @@ -53,9 +53,69 @@ Functions, Constants, and Exceptions (currently provided by the OpenSSL library). This signifies some problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer that's superimposed on the underlying network connection. This error - is a subtype of :exc:`socket.error`, which in turn is a subtype of - :exc:`IOError`. The error code and message of :exc:`SSLError` instances - are provided by the OpenSSL library. + is a subtype of :exc:`OSError`. The error code and message of + :exc:`SSLError` instances are provided by the OpenSSL library. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`SSLError` used to be a subtype of :exc:`socket.error`. + + .. attribute:: library + + A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which the error + occurred, such as ``SSL``, ``PEM`` or ``X509``. The range of possible + values depends on the OpenSSL version. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: reason + + A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred, for + example ``CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED``. The range of possible + values depends on the OpenSSL version. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. exception:: SSLZeroReturnError + + A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when trying to read or write and + the SSL connection has been closed cleanly. Note that this doesn't + mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been closed. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. exception:: SSLWantReadError + + A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised by a :ref:`non-blocking SSL socket + <ssl-nonblocking>` when trying to read or write data, but more data needs + to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be + fulfilled. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. exception:: SSLWantWriteError + + A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised by a :ref:`non-blocking SSL socket + <ssl-nonblocking>` when trying to read or write data, but more data needs + to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be + fulfilled. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. exception:: SSLSyscallError + + A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when a system error was encountered + while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket. Unfortunately, + there is no easy way to inspect the original errno number. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. exception:: SSLEOFError + + A subclass of :exc:`SSLError` raised when the SSL connection has been + terminated abruptly. Generally, you shouldn't try to reuse the underlying + transport when this error is encountered. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. exception:: CertificateError @@ -161,6 +221,35 @@ instead. Random generation ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +.. function:: RAND_bytes(num) + + Returns *num* cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an + :class:`SSLError` if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the + operation is not supported by the current RAND method. :func:`RAND_status` + can be used to check the status of the PRNG and :func:`RAND_add` can be used + to seed the PRNG. + + Read the Wikipedia article, `Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number + generator (CSPRNG) + <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator>`_, + to get the requirements of a cryptographically generator. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: RAND_pseudo_bytes(num) + + Returns (bytes, is_cryptographic): bytes are *num* pseudo-random bytes, + is_cryptographic is True if the bytes generated are cryptographically + strong. Raises an :class:`SSLError` if the operation is not supported by the + current RAND method. + + Generated pseudo-random byte sequences will be unique if they are of + sufficient length, but are not necessarily unpredictable. They can be used + for non-cryptographic purposes and for certain purposes in cryptographic + protocols, but usually not for key generation etc. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. function:: RAND_status() Returns True if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been seeded with @@ -170,7 +259,7 @@ Random generation .. function:: RAND_egd(path) - If you are running an entropy-gathering daemon (EGD) somewhere, and ``path`` + If you are running an entropy-gathering daemon (EGD) somewhere, and *path* is the pathname of a socket connection open to it, this will read 256 bytes of randomness from the socket, and add it to the SSL pseudo-random number generator to increase the security of generated secret keys. This is @@ -181,8 +270,8 @@ Random generation .. function:: RAND_add(bytes, entropy) - Mixes the given ``bytes`` into the SSL pseudo-random number generator. The - parameter ``entropy`` (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in + Mixes the given *bytes* into the SSL pseudo-random number generator. The + parameter *entropy* (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in string (so you can always use :const:`0.0`). See :rfc:`1750` for more information on sources of entropy. @@ -238,6 +327,9 @@ Certificate handling will attempt to validate the server certificate against that set of root certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function is now IPv6-compatible. + .. function:: DER_cert_to_PEM_cert(DER_cert_bytes) Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded @@ -345,6 +437,46 @@ Constants .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. data:: OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE + + Use the server's cipher ordering preference, rather than the client's. + This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2 server sockets. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: OP_SINGLE_DH_USE + + Prevents re-use of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions. This + improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. + This option only applies to server sockets. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE + + Prevents re-use of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions. This + improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. + This option only applies to server sockets. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: OP_NO_COMPRESSION + + Disable compression on the SSL channel. This is useful if the application + protocol supports its own compression scheme. + + This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.0.0 and later. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: HAS_ECDH + + Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for Elliptic Curve-based + Diffie-Hellman key exchange. This should be true unless the feature was + explicitly disabled by the distributor. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. data:: HAS_SNI Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the *Server Name @@ -354,6 +486,23 @@ Constants .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. data:: HAS_NPN + + Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for *Next Protocol + Negotiation* as described in the `NPN draft specification + <http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. When true, + you can use the :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` method to advertise + which protocols you want to support. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES + + List of supported TLS channel binding types. Strings in this list + can be used as arguments to :meth:`SSLSocket.get_channel_binding`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. data:: OPENSSL_VERSION The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the interpreter:: @@ -479,6 +628,37 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes: version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being used. If no connection has been established, returns ``None``. +.. method:: SSLSocket.compression() + + Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ``None`` + if the connection isn't compressed. + + If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression mechanism, + you can use :data:`OP_NO_COMPRESSION` to disable SSL-level compression. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. method:: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding(cb_type="tls-unique") + + Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object. Returns + ``None`` if not connected or the handshake has not been completed. + + The *cb_type* parameter allow selection of the desired channel binding + type. Valid channel binding types are listed in the + :data:`CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES` list. Currently only the 'tls-unique' channel + binding, defined by :rfc:`5929`, is supported. :exc:`ValueError` will be + raised if an unsupported channel binding type is requested. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. method:: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol() + + Returns the protocol that was selected during the TLS/SSL handshake. If + :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` was not called, or if the other party + does not support NPN, or if the handshake has not yet happened, this will + return ``None``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. method:: SSLSocket.unwrap() @@ -488,7 +668,6 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes: returned socket should always be used for further communication with the other side of the connection, rather than the original socket. - .. attribute:: SSLSocket.context The :class:`SSLContext` object this SSL socket is tied to. If the SSL @@ -518,7 +697,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients. :class:`SSLContext` objects have the following methods and attributes: -.. method:: SSLContext.load_cert_chain(certfile, keyfile=None) +.. method:: SSLContext.load_cert_chain(certfile, keyfile=None, password=None) Load a private key and the corresponding certificate. The *certfile* string must be the path to a single file in PEM format containing the @@ -529,9 +708,25 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients. :ref:`ssl-certificates` for more information on how the certificate is stored in the *certfile*. + The *password* argument may be a function to call to get the password for + decrypting the private key. It will only be called if the private key is + encrypted and a password is necessary. It will be called with no arguments, + and it should return a string, bytes, or bytearray. If the return value is + a string it will be encoded as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key. + Alternatively a string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly + as the *password* argument. It will be ignored if the private key is not + encrypted and no password is needed. + + If the *password* argument is not specified and a password is required, + OpenSSL's built-in password prompting mechanism will be used to + interactively prompt the user for a password. + An :class:`SSLError` is raised if the private key doesn't match with the certificate. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + New optional argument *password*. + .. method:: SSLContext.load_verify_locations(cafile=None, capath=None) Load a set of "certification authority" (CA) certificates used to validate @@ -570,6 +765,53 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients. when connected, the :meth:`SSLSocket.cipher` method of SSL sockets will give the currently selected cipher. +.. method:: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(protocols) + + Specify which protocols the socket should avertise during the SSL/TLS + handshake. It should be a list of strings, like ``['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']``, + ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the + handshake, and will play out according to the `NPN draft specification + <http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. After a + successful handshake, the :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol` method will + return the agreed-upon protocol. + + This method will raise :exc:`NotImplementedError` if :data:`HAS_NPN` is + False. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. method:: SSLContext.load_dh_params(dhfile) + + Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Helman (DH) key exchange. + Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the expense of + computational resources (both on the server and on the client). + The *dhfile* parameter should be the path to a file containing DH + parameters in PEM format. + + This setting doesn't apply to client sockets. You can also use the + :data:`OP_SINGLE_DH_USE` option to further improve security. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. method:: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(curve_name) + + Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key + exchange. ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while arguably + as secure. The *curve_name* parameter should be a string describing + a well-known elliptic curve, for example ``prime256v1`` for a widely + supported curve. + + This setting doesn't apply to client sockets. You can also use the + :data:`OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE` option to further improve security. + + This method is not available if :data:`HAS_ECDH` is False. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. seealso:: + `SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy <http://vincent.bernat.im/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy.html>`_ + Vincent Bernat. + .. method:: SSLContext.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=False, \ do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True, \ server_hostname=None) @@ -984,13 +1226,10 @@ to be aware of: try: sock.do_handshake() break - except ssl.SSLError as err: - if err.args[0] == ssl.SSL_ERROR_WANT_READ: - select.select([sock], [], []) - elif err.args[0] == ssl.SSL_ERROR_WANT_WRITE: - select.select([], [sock], []) - else: - raise + except ssl.SSLWantReadError: + select.select([sock], [], []) + except ssl.SSLWantWriteError: + select.select([], [sock], []) .. _ssl-security: diff --git a/Doc/library/stat.rst b/Doc/library/stat.rst index 7de98b6..f47f464 100644 --- a/Doc/library/stat.rst +++ b/Doc/library/stat.rst @@ -104,6 +104,16 @@ Example:: if __name__ == '__main__': walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile) +An additional utility function is provided to covert a file's mode in a human +readable string: + +.. function:: filemode(mode) + + Convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple returned by :func:`os.stat`, :func:`os.fstat` or :func:`os.lstat`. @@ -344,4 +354,3 @@ The following flags can be used in the *flags* argument of :func:`os.chflags`: The file is a snapshot file. See the \*BSD or Mac OS systems man page :manpage:`chflags(2)` for more information. - diff --git a/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst b/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst index 9688393..ed5b3ae 100644 --- a/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst +++ b/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst @@ -15,6 +15,10 @@ interpreter. The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes, instances and exceptions. +Some collection classes are mutable. The methods that add, subtract, or +rearrange their members in place, and don't return a specific item, never return +the collection instance itself but ``None``. + Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular, practically all objects can be compared, tested for truth value, and converted to a string (with the :func:`repr` function or the slightly different @@ -641,34 +645,34 @@ made available to Python as the :attr:`modulus` attribute of Here are the rules in detail: - - If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is not divisible - by ``P``, define ``hash(x)`` as ``m * invmod(n, P) % P``, where ``invmod(n, - P)`` gives the inverse of ``n`` modulo ``P``. +- If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is not divisible + by ``P``, define ``hash(x)`` as ``m * invmod(n, P) % P``, where ``invmod(n, + P)`` gives the inverse of ``n`` modulo ``P``. - - If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is - divisible by ``P`` (but ``m`` is not) then ``n`` has no inverse - modulo ``P`` and the rule above doesn't apply; in this case define - ``hash(x)`` to be the constant value ``sys.hash_info.inf``. +- If ``x = m / n`` is a nonnegative rational number and ``n`` is + divisible by ``P`` (but ``m`` is not) then ``n`` has no inverse + modulo ``P`` and the rule above doesn't apply; in this case define + ``hash(x)`` to be the constant value ``sys.hash_info.inf``. - - If ``x = m / n`` is a negative rational number define ``hash(x)`` - as ``-hash(-x)``. If the resulting hash is ``-1``, replace it with - ``-2``. +- If ``x = m / n`` is a negative rational number define ``hash(x)`` + as ``-hash(-x)``. If the resulting hash is ``-1``, replace it with + ``-2``. - - The particular values ``sys.hash_info.inf``, ``-sys.hash_info.inf`` - and ``sys.hash_info.nan`` are used as hash values for positive - infinity, negative infinity, or nans (respectively). (All hashable - nans have the same hash value.) +- The particular values ``sys.hash_info.inf``, ``-sys.hash_info.inf`` + and ``sys.hash_info.nan`` are used as hash values for positive + infinity, negative infinity, or nans (respectively). (All hashable + nans have the same hash value.) - - For a :class:`complex` number ``z``, the hash values of the real - and imaginary parts are combined by computing ``hash(z.real) + - sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)``, reduced modulo - ``2**sys.hash_info.width`` so that it lies in - ``range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width - - 1))``. Again, if the result is ``-1``, it's replaced with ``-2``. +- For a :class:`complex` number ``z``, the hash values of the real + and imaginary parts are combined by computing ``hash(z.real) + + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)``, reduced modulo + ``2**sys.hash_info.width`` so that it lies in + ``range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width - + 1))``. Again, if the result is ``-1``, it's replaced with ``-2``. To clarify the above rules, here's some example Python code, -equivalent to the builtin hash, for computing the hash of a rational +equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational number, :class:`float`, or :class:`complex`:: @@ -795,110 +799,35 @@ the yield expression <yieldexpr>`. .. _typesseq: -Sequence Types --- :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray`, :class:`list`, :class:`tuple`, :class:`range` -================================================================================================================== +Sequence Types --- :class:`list`, :class:`tuple`, :class:`range` +================================================================ -There are six sequence types: strings, byte sequences (:class:`bytes` objects), -byte arrays (:class:`bytearray` objects), lists, tuples, and range objects. For -other containers see the built in :class:`dict` and :class:`set` classes, and -the :mod:`collections` module. +There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects. +Additional sequence types tailored for processing of +:ref:`binary data <binaryseq>` and :ref:`text strings <textseq>` are +described in dedicated sections. -.. index:: - object: sequence - object: string - object: bytes - object: bytearray - object: tuple - object: list - object: range - -Strings contain Unicode characters. Their literals are written in single or -double quotes: ``'xyzzy'``, ``"frobozz"``. See :ref:`strings` for more about -string literals. In addition to the functionality described here, there are -also string-specific methods described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. - -Bytes and bytearray objects contain single bytes -- the former is immutable -while the latter is a mutable sequence. -Bytes objects can be constructed by using the -constructor, :func:`bytes`, and from literals; use a ``b`` prefix with normal -string syntax: ``b'xyzzy'``. To construct byte arrays, use the -:func:`bytearray` function. - -While string objects are sequences of characters (represented by strings of -length 1), bytes and bytearray objects are sequences of *integers* (between 0 -and 255), representing the ASCII value of single bytes. That means that for -a bytes or bytearray object *b*, ``b[0]`` will be an integer, while -``b[0:1]`` will be a bytes or bytearray object of length 1. The -representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (``b'...'``) since it -is generally more useful than e.g. ``bytes([50, 19, 100])``. You can always -convert a bytes object into a list of integers using ``list(b)``. - -Also, while in previous Python versions, byte strings and Unicode strings -could be exchanged for each other rather freely (barring encoding issues), -strings and bytes are now completely separate concepts. There's no implicit -en-/decoding if you pass an object of the wrong type. A string always -compares unequal to a bytes or bytearray object. - -Lists are constructed with square brackets, separating items with commas: ``[a, -b, c]``. Tuples are constructed by the comma operator (not within square -brackets), with or without enclosing parentheses, but an empty tuple must have -the enclosing parentheses, such as ``a, b, c`` or ``()``. A single item tuple -must have a trailing comma, such as ``(d,)``. - -Objects of type range are created using the :func:`range` function. They don't -support concatenation or repetition, and using :func:`min` or :func:`max` on -them is inefficient. - -Most sequence types support the following operations. The ``in`` and ``not in`` -operations have the same priorities as the comparison operations. The ``+`` and -``*`` operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. -[3]_ Additional methods are provided for :ref:`typesseq-mutable`. +.. _typesseq-common: + +Common Sequence Operations +-------------------------- + +.. index:: object: sequence + +The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types, +both mutable and immutable. The :class:`collections.abc.Sequence` ABC is +provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on +custom sequence types. This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority (operations in the same box have the same priority). In the table, *s* and *t* -are sequences of the same type; *n*, *i*, *j* and *k* are integers. - -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| Operation | Result | Notes | -+==================+================================+==========+ -| ``x in s`` | ``True`` if an item of *s* is | \(1) | -| | equal to *x*, else ``False`` | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``x not in s`` | ``False`` if an item of *s* is | \(1) | -| | equal to *x*, else ``True`` | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s + t`` | the concatenation of *s* and | \(6) | -| | *t* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s * n, n * s`` | *n* shallow copies of *s* | \(2) | -| | concatenated | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s[i]`` | *i*\ th item of *s*, origin 0 | \(3) | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s[i:j]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(4) | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s[i:j:k]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(5) | -| | with step *k* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``len(s)`` | length of *s* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``min(s)`` | smallest item of *s* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``max(s)`` | largest item of *s* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s.index(i)`` | index of the first occurence | | -| | of *i* in *s* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ -| ``s.count(i)`` | total number of occurences of | | -| | *i* in *s* | | -+------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ - -Sequence types also support comparisons. In particular, tuples and lists are -compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements. This means that -to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the two sequences must be -of the same type and have the same length. (For full details see -:ref:`comparisons` in the language reference.) +are sequences of the same type, *n*, *i*, *j* and *k* are integers and *x* is +an arbitrary object that meets any type and value restrictions imposed by *s*. + +The ``in`` and ``not in`` operations have the same priorities as the +comparison operations. The ``+`` (concatenation) and ``*`` (repetition) +operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. .. index:: triple: operations on; sequence; types @@ -911,18 +840,67 @@ of the same type and have the same length. (For full details see pair: slice; operation operator: in operator: not in + single: count() (sequence method) + single: index() (sequence method) + ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| Operation | Result | Notes | ++==========================+================================+==========+ +| ``x in s`` | ``True`` if an item of *s* is | \(1) | +| | equal to *x*, else ``False`` | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``x not in s`` | ``False`` if an item of *s* is | \(1) | +| | equal to *x*, else ``True`` | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s + t`` | the concatenation of *s* and | (6)(7) | +| | *t* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s * n`` or | *n* shallow copies of *s* | (2)(7) | +| ``n * s`` | concatenated | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s[i]`` | *i*\ th item of *s*, origin 0 | \(3) | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s[i:j]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(4) | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s[i:j:k]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(5) | +| | with step *k* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``len(s)`` | length of *s* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``min(s)`` | smallest item of *s* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``max(s)`` | largest item of *s* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | index of the first occurence | \(8) | +| | of *x* in *s* (at or after | | +| | index *i* and before index *j*)| | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ +| ``s.count(x)`` | total number of occurences of | | +| | *x* in *s* | | ++--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+ + +Sequences of the same type also support comparisons. In particular, tuples +and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements. +This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the +two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length. (For full +details see :ref:`comparisons` in the language reference.) Notes: (1) - When *s* is a string object, the ``in`` and ``not in`` operations act like a - substring test. + While the ``in`` and ``not in`` operations are used only for simple + containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences + (such as :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`) also use + them for subsequence testing:: + + >>> "gg" in "eggs" + True (2) Values of *n* less than ``0`` are treated as ``0`` (which yields an empty sequence of the same type as *s*). Note also that the copies are shallow; nested structures are not copied. This often haunts new Python programmers; - consider: + consider:: >>> lists = [[]] * 3 >>> lists @@ -934,7 +912,7 @@ Notes: What has happened is that ``[[]]`` is a one-element list containing an empty list, so all three elements of ``[[]] * 3`` are (pointers to) this single empty list. Modifying any of the elements of ``lists`` modifies this single list. - You can create a list of different lists this way: + You can create a list of different lists this way:: >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)] >>> lists[0].append(3) @@ -965,33 +943,476 @@ Notes: If *k* is ``None``, it is treated like ``1``. (6) - Concatenating immutable strings always results in a new object. This means - that building up a string by repeated concatenation will have a quadratic - runtime cost in the total string length. To get a linear runtime cost, - you must switch to one of the alternatives below: + Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object. This + means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a + quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length. To get a linear + runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below: * if concatenating :class:`str` objects, you can build a list and use - :meth:`str.join` at the end; + :meth:`str.join` at the end or else write to a :class:`io.StringIO` + instance and retrieve its value when complete * if concatenating :class:`bytes` objects, you can similarly use - :meth:`bytes.join`, or you can do in-place concatenation with a - :class:`bytearray` object. :class:`bytearray` objects are mutable and - have an efficient overallocation mechanism. + :meth:`bytes.join` or :class:`io.BytesIO`, or you can do in-place + concatenation with a :class:`bytearray` object. :class:`bytearray` + objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism + + * if concatenating :class:`tuple` objects, extend a :class:`list` instead + + * for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation + + +(7) + Some sequence types (such as :class:`range`) only support item sequences + that follow specific patterns, and hence don't support sequence + concatenation or repetition. + +(8) + ``index`` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*. + When supported, the additional arguments to the index method allow + efficient searching of subsections of the sequence. Passing the extra + arguments is roughly equivalent to using ``s[i:j].index(x)``, only + without copying any data and with the returned index being relative to + the start of the sequence rather than the start of the slice. + + +.. _typesseq-immutable: + +Immutable Sequence Types +------------------------ + +.. index:: + triple: immutable; sequence; types + object: tuple + builtin: hash + +The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is +not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the :func:`hash` +built-in. + +This support allows immutable sequences, such as :class:`tuple` instances, to +be used as :class:`dict` keys and stored in :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` +instances. + +Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will +result in :exc:`TypeError`. + + +.. _typesseq-mutable: + +Mutable Sequence Types +---------------------- + +.. index:: + triple: mutable; sequence; types + object: list + object: bytearray + +The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types. +The :class:`collections.abc.MutableSequence` ABC is provided to make it +easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types. + +In the table *s* is an instance of a mutable sequence type, *t* is any +iterable object and *x* is an arbitrary object that meets any type +and value restrictions imposed by *s* (for example, :class:`bytearray` only +accepts integers that meet the value restriction ``0 <= x <= 255``). + + +.. index:: + triple: operations on; sequence; types + triple: operations on; list; type + pair: subscript; assignment + pair: slice; assignment + statement: del + single: append() (sequence method) + single: clear() (sequence method) + single: copy() (sequence method) + single: extend() (sequence method) + single: insert() (sequence method) + single: pop() (sequence method) + single: remove() (sequence method) + single: reverse() (sequence method) + ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| Operation | Result | Notes | ++==============================+================================+=====================+ +| ``s[i] = x`` | item *i* of *s* is replaced by | | +| | *x* | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s[i:j] = t`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | | +| | is replaced by the contents of | | +| | the iterable *t* | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``del s[i:j]`` | same as ``s[i:j] = []`` | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s[i:j:k] = t`` | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]`` | \(1) | +| | are replaced by those of *t* | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``del s[i:j:k]`` | removes the elements of | | +| | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.append(x)`` | appends *x* to the end of the | | +| | sequence (same as | | +| | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]``) | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.clear()`` | removes all items from ``s`` | \(5) | +| | (same as ``del s[:]``) | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.copy()`` | creates a shallow copy of ``s``| \(5) | +| | (same as ``s[:]``) | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.extend(t)`` | extends *s* with the | | +| | contents of *t* (same as | | +| | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = t``) | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.insert(i, x)`` | inserts *x* into *s* at the | | +| | index given by *i* | | +| | (same as ``s[i:i] = [x]``) | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.pop([i])`` | retrieves the item at *i* and | \(2) | +| | also removes it from *s* | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.remove(x)`` | remove the first item from *s* | \(3) | +| | where ``s[i] == x`` | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ +| ``s.reverse()`` | reverses the items of *s* in | \(4) | +| | place | | ++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ + + +Notes: + +(1) + *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing. + +(2) + The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last + item is removed and returned. + +(3) + ``remove`` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*. + +(4) + The :meth:`reverse` method modifies the sequence in place for economy of + space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by + side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence. + +(5) + :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` are included for consistency with the + interfaces of mutable containers that don't support slicing operations + (such as :class:`dict` and :class:`set`) + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` methods. + + +.. _typesseq-list: + +Lists +----- + +.. index:: object: list + +Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of +homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by +application). + +.. class:: list([iterable]) + + Lists may be constructed in several ways: + + * Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: ``[]`` + * Using square brackets, separating items with commas: ``[a]``, ``[a, b, c]`` + * Using a list comprehension: ``[x for x in iterable]`` + * Using the type constructor: ``list()`` or ``list(iterable)`` + + The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same + order as *iterable*'s items. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a + container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* + is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to ``iterable[:]``. + For example, ``list('abc')`` returns ``['a', 'b', 'c']`` and + ``list( (1, 2, 3) )`` returns ``[1, 2, 3]``. + If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, ``[]``. + + + Many other operations also produce lists, including the :func:`sorted` + built-in. + + Lists implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` and + :ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` sequence operations. Lists also provide the + following additional method: + + .. method:: list.sort(*, key=None, reverse=None) + + This method sorts the list in place, using only ``<`` comparisons + between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations + fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left + in a partially modified state). + + *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a + comparison key from each list element (for example, ``key=str.lower``). + The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and + then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of ``None`` + means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate + key value. + + The :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` utility is available to convert a 2.x + style *cmp* function to a *key* function. + + *reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list elements + are sorted as if each comparison were reversed. + + This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when + sorting a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side + effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use :func:`sorted` to + explicitly request a new sorted list instance). + + The :meth:`sort` method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable if it + guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal + --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by + department, then by salary grade). + + .. impl-detail:: + + While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even + inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation of Python makes the + list appear empty for the duration, and raises :exc:`ValueError` if it can + detect that the list has been mutated during a sort. + + +.. _typesseq-tuple: + +Tuples +------ + +.. index:: object: tuple + +Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of +heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the :func:`enumerate` +built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of +homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a :class:`set` or +:class:`dict` instance). + +.. class:: tuple([iterable]) + + Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways: + + * Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: ``()`` + * Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: ``a,`` or ``(a,)`` + * Separating items with commas: ``a, b, c`` or ``(a, b, c)`` + * Using the :func:`tuple` built-in: ``tuple()`` or ``tuple(iterable)`` + + The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same + order as *iterable*'s items. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a + container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If *iterable* + is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example, + ``tuple('abc')`` returns ``('a', 'b', 'c')`` and + ``tuple( [1, 2, 3] )`` returns ``(1, 2, 3)``. + If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, ``()``. + + Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses. + The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or + when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example, + ``f(a, b, c)`` is a function call with three arguments, while + ``f((a, b, c))`` is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument. + + Tuples implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence + operations. + +For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than +access by index, :func:`collections.namedtuple` may be a more appropriate +choice than a simple tuple object. +.. _typesseq-range: + +Ranges +------ + +.. index:: object: range + +The :class:`range` type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is +commonly used for looping a specific number of times in :keyword:`for` +loops. + +.. class:: range(stop) + range(start, stop[, step]) + + The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in + :class:`int` or any object that implements the ``__index__`` special + method). If the *step* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``1``. + If the *start* argument is omitted, it defaults to ``0``. + If *step* is zero, :exc:`ValueError` is raised. + + For a positive *step*, the contents of a range ``r`` are determined by the + formula ``r[i] = start + step*i`` where ``i >= 0`` and + ``r[i] < stop``. + + For a negative *step*, the contents of the range are still determined by + the formula ``r[i] = start + step*i``, but the constraints are ``i >= 0`` + and ``r[i] > stop``. + + A range object will be empty if ``r[0]`` does not meant the value + constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted + as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive + indices. + + Ranges containing absolute values larger than :data:`sys.maxsize` are + permitted but some features (such as :func:`len`) may raise + :exc:`OverflowError`. + + Range examples:: + + >>> list(range(10)) + [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] + >>> list(range(1, 11)) + [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] + >>> list(range(0, 30, 5)) + [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25] + >>> list(range(0, 10, 3)) + [0, 3, 6, 9] + >>> list(range(0, -10, -1)) + [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9] + >>> list(range(0)) + [] + >>> list(range(1, 0)) + [] + + Ranges implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence operations + except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can + only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and + concatenation will usually violate that pattern). + + .. data: start + + The value of the *start* parameter (or ``0`` if the parameter was + not supplied) + + .. data: stop + + The value of the *stop* parameter + + .. data: step + + The value of the *step* parameter (or ``1`` if the parameter was + not supplied) + +The advantage of the :class:`range` type over a regular :class:`list` or +:class:`tuple` is that a :class:`range` object will always take the same +(small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it +only stores the ``start``, ``stop`` and ``step`` values, calculating individual +items and subranges as needed). + +Range objects implement the :class:`collections.Sequence` ABC, and provide +features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and +support for negative indices (see :ref:`typesseq`): + + >>> r = range(0, 20, 2) + >>> r + range(0, 20, 2) + >>> 11 in r + False + >>> 10 in r + True + >>> r.index(10) + 5 + >>> r[5] + 10 + >>> r[:5] + range(0, 10, 2) + >>> r[-1] + 18 + +Testing range objects for equality with ``==`` and ``!=`` compares +them as sequences. That is, two range objects are considered equal if +they represent the same sequence of values. (Note that two range +objects that compare equal might have different :attr:`start`, +:attr:`stop` and :attr:`step` attributes, for example ``range(0) == +range(2, 1, 3)`` or ``range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)``.) + +.. versionchanged:: 3.2 + Implement the Sequence ABC. + Support slicing and negative indices. + Test :class:`int` objects for membership in constant time instead of + iterating through all items. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Define '==' and '!=' to compare range objects based on the + sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on + object identity). + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + The :attr:`start`, :attr:`stop` and :attr:`step` attributes. + + +.. _textseq: + +Text Sequence Type --- :class:`str` +=================================== + +.. index:: + object: string + object: bytes + object: bytearray + object: io.StringIO + + +Textual data in Python is handled with :class:`str` objects, which are +immutable sequences of Unicode code points. String literals are +written in a variety of ways: + +* Single quotes: ``'allows embedded "double" quotes'`` +* Double quotes: ``"allows embedded 'single' quotes"``. +* Triple quoted: ``'''Three single quotes'''``, ``"""Three double quotes"""`` + +Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will +be included in the string literal. + +String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace +between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That +is, ``("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs"``. + +See :ref:`strings` for more about the various forms of string literal, +including supported escape sequences, and the ``r`` ("raw") prefix that +disables most escape sequence processing. + +Strings may also be created from other objects with the :ref:`str <func-str>` +built-in. + +Since there is no separate "character" type, indexing a string produces +strings of length 1. That is, for a non-empty string *s*, ``s[0] == s[0:1]``. + +There is also no mutable string type, but :meth:`str.join` or +:class:`io.StringIO` can be used to efficiently construct strings from +multiple fragments. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + For backwards compatibility with the Python 2 series, the ``u`` prefix is + once again permitted on string literals. It has no effect on the meaning + of string literals and cannot be combined with the ``r`` prefix. + .. _string-methods: String Methods -------------- -.. index:: pair: string; methods +.. index:: + pair: string; methods + module: re -String objects support the methods listed below. +Strings implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence +operations, along with the additional methods described below. -In addition, Python's strings support the sequence type methods described in the -:ref:`typesseq` section. To output formatted strings, see the -:ref:`string-formatting` section. Also, see the :mod:`re` module for string -functions based on regular expressions. +Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a large +degree of flexibility and customization (see :meth:`str.format`, +:ref:`formatstrings` and :ref:`string-formatting`) and the other based on C +``printf`` style formatting that handles a narrower range of types and is +slightly harder to use correctly, but is often faster for the cases it can +handle (:ref:`old-string-formatting`). + +The :ref:`textservices` section of the standard library covers a number of +other modules that provide various text related utilities (including regular +expression support in the :mod:`re` module). .. method:: str.capitalize() @@ -999,6 +1420,23 @@ functions based on regular expressions. rest lowercased. +.. method:: str.casefold() + + Return a casefolded copy of the string. Casefolded strings may be used for + caseless matching. + + Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because it is + intended to remove all case distinctions in a string. For example, the German + lowercase letter ``'ß'`` is equivalent to ``"ss"``. Since it is already + lowercase, :meth:`lower` would do nothing to ``'ß'``; :meth:`casefold` + converts it to ``"ss"``. + + The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode + Standard. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: str.center(width[, fillchar]) Return centered in a string of length *width*. Padding is done using the @@ -1206,6 +1644,9 @@ functions based on regular expressions. Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4]_ converted to lowercase. + The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode + Standard. + .. method:: str.lstrip([chars]) @@ -1278,7 +1719,7 @@ functions based on regular expressions. two empty strings, followed by the string itself. -.. method:: str.rsplit([sep[, maxsplit]]) +.. method:: str.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1) Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits are done, the *rightmost* @@ -1300,7 +1741,7 @@ functions based on regular expressions. 'mississ' -.. method:: str.split([sep[, maxsplit]]) +.. method:: str.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1) Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits are done (thus, @@ -1369,7 +1810,8 @@ functions based on regular expressions. .. method:: str.swapcase() Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and - vice versa. + vice versa. Note that it is not necessarily true that + ``s.swapcase().swapcase() == s``. .. method:: str.title() @@ -1420,7 +1862,11 @@ functions based on regular expressions. Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4]_ converted to uppercase. Note that ``str.upper().isupper()`` might be ``False`` if ``s`` contains uncased characters or if the Unicode category of the resulting - character(s) is not "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), but e.g. "Lt" (Letter, titlecase). + character(s) is not "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), but e.g. "Lt" (Letter, + titlecase). + + The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 of the Unicode + Standard. .. method:: str.zfill(width) @@ -1433,8 +1879,8 @@ functions based on regular expressions. .. _old-string-formatting: -Old String Formatting Operations --------------------------------- +``printf``-style String Formatting +---------------------------------- .. index:: single: formatting, string (%) @@ -1446,23 +1892,19 @@ Old String Formatting Operations single: % formatting single: % interpolation -.. XXX is the note enough? - .. note:: - The formatting operations described here are modelled on C's printf() - syntax. They only support formatting of certain builtin types. The - use of a binary operator means that care may be needed in order to - format tuples and dictionaries correctly. As the new - :ref:`string-formatting` syntax is more flexible and handles tuples and - dictionaries naturally, it is recommended for new code. However, there - are no current plans to deprecate printf-style formatting. + The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that + lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and + dictionaries correctly). Using the newer :meth:`str.format` interface + helps avoid these errors, and also provides a generally more powerful, + flexible and extensible approach to formatting text. String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ``%`` operator (modulo). This is also known as the string *formatting* or *interpolation* operator. Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is a string), ``%`` conversion specifications in *format* are replaced with zero or more elements of *values*. -The effect is similar to the using :c:func:`sprintf` in the C language. +The effect is similar to using the :c:func:`sprintf` in the C language. If *format* requires a single argument, *values* may be a single non-tuple object. [5]_ Otherwise, *values* must be a tuple with exactly the number of @@ -1620,211 +2062,178 @@ that ``'\0'`` is the end of the string. ``%f`` conversions for numbers whose absolute value is over 1e50 are no longer replaced by ``%g`` conversions. -.. index:: - module: string - module: re -Additional string operations are defined in standard modules :mod:`string` and -:mod:`re`. +.. _binaryseq: +Binary Sequence Types --- :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray`, :class:`memoryview` +================================================================================= -.. _typesseq-range: +.. index:: + object: bytes + object: bytearray + object: memoryview + module: array -Range Type ----------- +The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are :class:`bytes` and +:class:`bytearray`. They are supported by :class:`memoryview` which uses +the buffer protocol to access the memory of other binary objects without +needing to make a copy. -.. index:: object: range +The :mod:`array` module supports efficient storage of basic data types like +32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values. -The :class:`range` type is an immutable sequence which is commonly used for -looping. The advantage of the :class:`range` type is that an :class:`range` -object will always take the same amount of memory, no matter the size of the -range it represents. +.. _typebytes: -Range objects have relatively little behavior: they support indexing, contains, -iteration, the :func:`len` function, and the following methods: +Bytes +----- -.. method:: range.count(x) +.. index:: object: bytes - Return the number of *i*'s for which ``s[i] == x``. +Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes. Since many major +binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects offer +several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII compatible +data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 +Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that for string +literals, except that a ``b`` prefix is added: -.. method:: range.index(x) +* Single quotes: ``b'still allows embedded "double" quotes'`` +* Double quotes: ``b"still allows embedded 'single' quotes"``. +* Triple quoted: ``b'''3 single quotes'''``, ``b"""3 double quotes"""`` - Return the smallest *i* such that ``s[i] == x``. Raises - :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not in the range. +Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless of the +declared source code encoding). Any binary values over 127 must be entered +into bytes literals using the appropriate escape sequence. - .. versionadded:: 3.2 +As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a ``r`` prefix to disable +processing of escape sequences. See :ref:`strings` for more about the various +forms of bytes literal, including supported escape sequences. -.. _typesseq-mutable: +While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text, bytes +objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers, with each +value in the sequence restricted such that ``0 <= x < 256`` (attempts to +violate this restriction will trigger :exc:`ValueError`. This is done +deliberately to emphasise that while many binary formats include ASCII based +elements and can be usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms, +this is not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying +text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not ASCII +compatible will usually lead to data corruption). -Mutable Sequence Types ----------------------- +In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a number of +other ways: -.. index:: - triple: mutable; sequence; types - object: list - object: bytearray +* A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: ``bytes(10)`` +* From an iterable of integers: ``bytes(range(20))`` +* Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol: ``bytes(obj)`` -List and bytearray objects support additional operations that allow in-place -modification of the object. Other mutable sequence types (when added to the -language) should also support these operations. Strings and tuples are -immutable sequence types: such objects cannot be modified once created. The -following operations are defined on mutable sequence types (where *x* is an -arbitrary object). +Also see the :ref:`bytes <func-bytes>` built-in. -Note that while lists allow their items to be of any type, bytearray object -"items" are all integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. +Since bytes objects are sequences of integers, for a bytes object *b*, +``b[0]`` will be an integer, while ``b[0:1]`` will be a bytes object of +length 1. (This contrasts with text strings, where both indexing and +slicing will produce a string of length 1) -.. index:: - triple: operations on; sequence; types - triple: operations on; list; type - pair: subscript; assignment - pair: slice; assignment - statement: del - single: append() (sequence method) - single: extend() (sequence method) - single: count() (sequence method) - single: index() (sequence method) - single: insert() (sequence method) - single: pop() (sequence method) - single: remove() (sequence method) - single: reverse() (sequence method) - single: sort() (sequence method) +The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (``b'...'``) +since it is often more useful than e.g. ``bytes([46, 46, 46])``. You can +always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using ``list(b)``. -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| Operation | Result | Notes | -+==============================+================================+=====================+ -| ``s[i] = x`` | item *i* of *s* is replaced by | | -| | *x* | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s[i:j] = t`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | | -| | is replaced by the contents of | | -| | the iterable *t* | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``del s[i:j]`` | same as ``s[i:j] = []`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s[i:j:k] = t`` | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]`` | \(1) | -| | are replaced by those of *t* | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``del s[i:j:k]`` | removes the elements of | | -| | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.append(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = | | -| | [x]`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.extend(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = | \(2) | -| | x`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.count(x)`` | return number of *i*'s for | | -| | which ``s[i] == x`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | return smallest *k* such that | \(3) | -| | ``s[k] == x`` and ``i <= k < | | -| | j`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.insert(i, x)`` | same as ``s[i:i] = [x]`` | \(4) | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.pop([i])`` | same as ``x = s[i]; del s[i]; | \(5) | -| | return x`` | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.remove(x)`` | same as ``del s[s.index(x)]`` | \(3) | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.reverse()`` | reverses the items of *s* in | \(6) | -| | place | | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ -| ``s.sort([key[, reverse]])`` | sort the items of *s* in place | (6), (7), (8) | -+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ - - -Notes: - -(1) - *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing. -(2) - *x* can be any iterable object. - -(3) - Raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*. When a negative index is - passed as the second or third parameter to the :meth:`index` method, the sequence - length is added, as for slice indices. If it is still negative, it is truncated - to zero, as for slice indices. - -(4) - When a negative index is passed as the first parameter to the :meth:`insert` - method, the sequence length is added, as for slice indices. If it is still - negative, it is truncated to zero, as for slice indices. - -(5) - The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last - item is removed and returned. +.. note:: + For Python 2.x users: In the Python 2.x series, a variety of implicit + conversions between 8-bit strings (the closest thing 2.x offers to a + built-in binary data type) and Unicode strings were permitted. This was a + backwards compatibility workaround to account for the fact that Python + originally only supported 8-bit text, and Unicode text was a later + addition. In Python 3.x, those implicit conversions are gone - conversions + between 8-bit binary data and Unicode text must be explicit, and bytes and + string objects will always compare unequal. -(6) - The :meth:`sort` and :meth:`reverse` methods modify the sequence in place for - economy of space when sorting or reversing a large sequence. To remind you - that they operate by side effect, they don't return the sorted or reversed - sequence. -(7) - The :meth:`sort` method takes optional arguments for controlling the - comparisons. Each must be specified as a keyword argument. +.. _typebytearray: - *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison - key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``. The default value is ``None``. - Use :func:`functools.cmp_to_key` to convert an - old-style *cmp* function to a *key* function. +Bytearray Objects +----------------- +.. index:: object: bytearray - *reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list elements are - sorted as if each comparison were reversed. +:class:`bytearray` objects are a mutable counterpart to :class:`bytes` +objects. There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead +they are always created by calling the constructor: - The :meth:`sort` method is guaranteed to be stable. A - sort is stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements - that compare equal --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for - example, sort by department, then by salary grade). +* Creating an empty instance: ``bytearray()`` +* Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length: ``bytearray(10)`` +* From an iterable of integers: ``bytearray(range(20))`` +* Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol: ``bytearray(b'Hi!)`` - .. impl-detail:: +As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the +:ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` sequence operations in addition to the +common bytes and bytearray operations described in :ref:`bytes-methods`. - While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even - inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation of Python makes the - list appear empty for the duration, and raises :exc:`ValueError` if it can - detect that the list has been mutated during a sort. - -(8) - :meth:`sort` is not supported by :class:`bytearray` objects. +Also see the :ref:`bytearray <func-bytearray>` built-in. .. _bytes-methods: -Bytes and Byte Array Methods ----------------------------- +Bytes and Bytearray Operations +------------------------------ .. index:: pair: bytes; methods pair: bytearray; methods -Bytes and bytearray objects, being "strings of bytes", have all methods found on -strings, with the exception of :func:`encode`, :func:`format` and -:func:`isidentifier`, which do not make sense with these types. For converting -the objects to strings, they have a :func:`decode` method. +Both bytes and bytearray objects support the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` +sequence operations. They interoperate not just with operands of the same +type, but with any object that supports the +:ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`. Due to this flexibility, they can be +freely mixed in operations without causing errors. However, the return type +of the result may depend on the order of operands. + +Due to the common use of ASCII text as the basis for binary protocols, bytes +and bytearray objects provide almost all methods found on text strings, with +the exceptions of: -Wherever one of these methods needs to interpret the bytes as characters -(e.g. the :func:`is...` methods), the ASCII character set is assumed. +* :meth:`str.encode` (which converts text strings to bytes objects) +* :meth:`str.format` and :meth:`str.format_map` (which are used to format + text for display to users) +* :meth:`str.isidentifier`, :meth:`str.isnumeric`, :meth:`str.isdecimal`, + :meth:`str.isprintable` (which are used to check various properties of + text strings which are not typically applicable to binary protocols). + +All other string methods are supported, although sometimes with slight +differences in functionality and semantics (as described below). .. note:: The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don't accept strings as their arguments, just as the methods on strings don't accept bytes as their - arguments. For example, you have to write :: + arguments. For example, you have to write:: a = "abc" b = a.replace("a", "f") - and :: + and:: a = b"abc" b = a.replace(b"a", b"f") +Whenever a bytes or bytearray method needs to interpret the bytes as +characters (e.g. the :meth:`is...` methods, :meth:`split`, :meth:`strip`), +the ASCII character set is assumed (text strings use Unicode semantics). + +.. note:: + Using these ASCII based methods to manipulate binary data that is not + stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data corruption. + +The search operations (:keyword:`in`, :meth:`count`, :meth:`find`, +:meth:`index`, :meth:`rfind` and :meth:`rindex`) all accept both integers +in the range 0 to 255 (inclusive) as well as bytes and byte array sequences. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + All of the search methods also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 + (inclusive) as their first argument. + + +Each bytes and bytearray instance provides a :meth:`decode` convenience +method that is the inverse of :meth:`str.encode`: .. method:: bytes.decode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict") bytearray.decode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict") @@ -1840,8 +2249,10 @@ Wherever one of these methods needs to interpret the bytes as characters .. versionchanged:: 3.1 Added support for keyword arguments. - -The bytes and bytearray types have an additional class method: +Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal +numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly, +the bytes and bytearray types have an additional class method to read data in +that format: .. classmethod:: bytes.fromhex(string) bytearray.fromhex(string) @@ -1850,8 +2261,8 @@ The bytes and bytearray types have an additional class method: decoding the given string object. The string must contain two hexadecimal digits per byte, spaces are ignored. - >>> bytes.fromhex('f0 f1f2 ') - b'\xf0\xf1\xf2' + >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2 ') + b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2' The maketrans and translate methods differ in semantics from the versions @@ -1885,6 +2296,434 @@ available on strings: .. versionadded:: 3.1 +.. _typememoryview: + +Memory Views +------------ + +:class:`memoryview` objects allow Python code to access the internal data +of an object that supports the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` without +copying. + +.. class:: memoryview(obj) + + Create a :class:`memoryview` that references *obj*. *obj* must support the + buffer protocol. Built-in objects that support the buffer protocol include + :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`. + + A :class:`memoryview` has the notion of an *element*, which is the + atomic memory unit handled by the originating object *obj*. For many + simple types such as :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`, an element + is a single byte, but other types such as :class:`array.array` may have + bigger elements. + + ``len(view)`` is equal to the length of :class:`~memoryview.tolist`. + If ``view.ndim = 0``, the length is 1. If ``view.ndim = 1``, the length + is equal to the number of elements in the view. For higher dimensions, + the length is equal to the length of the nested list representation of + the view. The :class:`~memoryview.itemsize` attribute will give you the + number of bytes in a single element. + + A :class:`memoryview` supports slicing to expose its data. If + :class:`~memoryview.format` is one of the native format specifiers + from the :mod:`struct` module, indexing will return a single element + with the correct type. Full slicing will result in a subview:: + + >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg') + >>> v[1] + 98 + >>> v[-1] + 103 + >>> v[1:4] + <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350> + >>> bytes(v[1:4]) + b'bce' + + Other native formats:: + + >>> import array + >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444]) + >>> a[0] + -11111111 + >>> a[-1] + 44444444 + >>> a[2:3].tolist() + [-33333333] + >>> a[::2].tolist() + [-11111111, -33333333] + >>> a[::-1].tolist() + [44444444, -33333333, 22222222, -11111111] + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports slice + assignment. Resizing is not allowed:: + + >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg') + >>> v = memoryview(data) + >>> v.readonly + False + >>> v[0] = ord(b'z') + >>> data + bytearray(b'zbcefg') + >>> v[1:4] = b'123' + >>> data + bytearray(b'z123fg') + >>> v[2:3] = b'spam' + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures + >>> v[2:6] = b'spam' + >>> data + bytearray(b'z1spam') + + One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats + 'B', 'b' or 'c' are also hashable. The hash is defined as + ``hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())``:: + + >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg') + >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg') + True + >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce') + True + >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2]) + True + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + One-dimensional memoryviews with formats 'B', 'b' or 'c' are now hashable. + + .. note:: + Hashing of memoryviews with formats other than 'B', 'b' or 'c' as well + as hashing of multi-dimensional memoryviews is possible in version 3.3.0, + but will raise an error in 3.3.1 in order to be compatible with the new + memoryview equality definition. + + :class:`memoryview` has several methods: + + .. method:: __eq__(exporter) + + A memoryview and a :pep:`3118` exporter are equal if their shapes are + equivalent and if all corresponding values are equal when the operands' + respective format codes are interpreted using :mod:`struct` syntax. + + For the subset of :mod:`struct` format strings currently supported by + :meth:`tolist`, ``v`` and ``w`` are equal if ``v.tolist() == w.tolist()``:: + + >>> import array + >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) + >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0]) + >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1]) + >>> x = memoryview(a) + >>> y = memoryview(b) + >>> x == a == y == b + True + >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist() + True + >>> z = y[::-2] + >>> z == c + True + >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist() + True + + If either format string is not supported by the :mod:`struct` module, + then the objects will always compare as unequal (even if the format + strings and buffer contents are identical):: + + >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long + >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure): + ... _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)] + ... + >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200) + >>> a = memoryview(point) + >>> b = memoryview(point) + >>> a == point + False + >>> a == b + False + + Note that, as with floating point numbers, ``v is w`` does *not* imply + ``v == w`` for memoryview objects. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Previous versions compared the raw memory disregarding the item format + and the logical array structure. + + .. method:: tobytes() + + Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring. This is equivalent to + calling the :class:`bytes` constructor on the memoryview. :: + + >>> m = memoryview(b"abc") + >>> m.tobytes() + b'abc' + >>> bytes(m) + b'abc' + + For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened list + representation with all elements converted to bytes. :meth:`tobytes` + supports all format strings, including those that are not in + :mod:`struct` module syntax. + + .. method:: tolist() + + Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements. :: + + >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist() + [97, 98, 99] + >>> import array + >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]) + >>> m = memoryview(a) + >>> m.tolist() + [1.1, 2.2, 3.3] + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :meth:`tolist` now supports all single character native formats in + :mod:`struct` module syntax as well as multi-dimensional + representations. + + .. method:: release() + + Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview object. Many + objects take special actions when a view is held on them (for example, + a :class:`bytearray` would temporarily forbid resizing); therefore, + calling release() is handy to remove these restrictions (and free any + dangling resources) as soon as possible. + + After this method has been called, any further operation on the view + raises a :class:`ValueError` (except :meth:`release()` itself which can + be called multiple times):: + + >>> m = memoryview(b'abc') + >>> m.release() + >>> m[0] + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object + + The context management protocol can be used for a similar effect, + using the ``with`` statement:: + + >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m: + ... m[0] + ... + 97 + >>> m[0] + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object + + .. versionadded:: 3.2 + + .. method:: cast(format[, shape]) + + Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape. *shape* defaults to + ``[byte_length//new_itemsize]``, which means that the result view + will be one-dimensional. The return value is a new memoryview, but + the buffer itself is not copied. Supported casts are 1D -> C-contiguous + and C-contiguous -> 1D. + + Both formats are restricted to single element native formats in + :mod:`struct` syntax. One of the formats must be a byte format + ('B', 'b' or 'c'). The byte length of the result must be the same + as the original length. + + Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes:: + + >>> import array + >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3]) + >>> x = memoryview(a) + >>> x.format + 'l' + >>> x.itemsize + 8 + >>> len(x) + 3 + >>> x.nbytes + 24 + >>> y = x.cast('B') + >>> y.format + 'B' + >>> y.itemsize + 1 + >>> len(y) + 24 + >>> y.nbytes + 24 + + Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char:: + + >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz') + >>> x = memoryview(b) + >>> x[0] = b'a' + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + ValueError: memoryview: invalid value for format "B" + >>> y = x.cast('c') + >>> y[0] = b'a' + >>> b + bytearray(b'ayz') + + Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char:: + + >>> import struct + >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12))) + >>> x = memoryview(buf) + >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3]) + >>> y.tolist() + [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]] + >>> y.format + 'i' + >>> y.itemsize + 4 + >>> len(y) + 2 + >>> y.nbytes + 48 + >>> z = y.cast('b') + >>> z.format + 'b' + >>> z.itemsize + 1 + >>> len(z) + 48 + >>> z.nbytes + 48 + + Cast 1D/unsigned char to to 2D/unsigned long:: + + >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6))) + >>> x = memoryview(buf) + >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3]) + >>> len(y) + 2 + >>> y.nbytes + 48 + >>> y.tolist() + [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]] + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + There are also several readonly attributes available: + + .. attribute:: obj + + The underlying object of the memoryview:: + + >>> b = bytearray(b'xyz') + >>> m = memoryview(b) + >>> m.obj is b + True + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: nbytes + + ``nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())``. This is + the amount of space in bytes that the array would use in a contiguous + representation. It is not necessarily equal to len(m):: + + >>> import array + >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5]) + >>> m = memoryview(a) + >>> len(m) + 5 + >>> m.nbytes + 20 + >>> y = m[::2] + >>> len(y) + 3 + >>> y.nbytes + 12 + >>> len(y.tobytes()) + 12 + + Multi-dimensional arrays:: + + >>> import struct + >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)]) + >>> x = memoryview(buf) + >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4]) + >>> y.tolist() + [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]] + >>> len(y) + 3 + >>> y.nbytes + 96 + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: readonly + + A bool indicating whether the memory is read only. + + .. attribute:: format + + A string containing the format (in :mod:`struct` module style) for each + element in the view. A memoryview can be created from exporters with + arbitrary format strings, but some methods (e.g. :meth:`tolist`) are + restricted to native single element formats. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + format ``'B'`` is now handled according to the struct module syntax. + This means that ``memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97``. + + .. attribute:: itemsize + + The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:: + + >>> import array, struct + >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002])) + >>> m.itemsize + 2 + >>> m[0] + 32000 + >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize + True + + .. attribute:: ndim + + An integer indicating how many dimensions of a multi-dimensional array the + memory represents. + + .. attribute:: shape + + A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the shape of the + memory as an N-dimensional array. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + An empty tuple instead of None when ndim = 0. + + .. attribute:: strides + + A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the size in bytes to + access each element for each dimension of the array. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + An empty tuple instead of None when ndim = 0. + + .. attribute:: suboffsets + + Used internally for PIL-style arrays. The value is informational only. + + .. attribute:: c_contiguous + + A bool indicating whether the memory is C-contiguous. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: f_contiguous + + A bool indicating whether the memory is Fortran contiguous. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: contiguous + + A bool indicating whether the memory is contiguous. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. _types-set: Set Types --- :class:`set`, :class:`frozenset` @@ -1896,7 +2735,7 @@ A :dfn:`set` object is an unordered collection of distinct :term:`hashable` obje Common uses include membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference, and symmetric difference. -(For other containers see the built in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, +(For other containers see the built-in :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.) Like other collections, sets support ``x in set``, ``len(set)``, and ``for x in @@ -2096,7 +2935,7 @@ Mapping Types --- :class:`dict` A :dfn:`mapping` object maps :term:`hashable` values to arbitrary objects. Mappings are mutable objects. There is currently only one standard mapping -type, the :dfn:`dictionary`. (For other containers see the built in +type, the :dfn:`dictionary`. (For other containers see the built-in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and :class:`tuple` classes, and the :mod:`collections` module.) @@ -2220,13 +3059,13 @@ pairs within braces, for example: ``{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}`` or ``{4098: .. method:: items() - Return a new view of the dictionary's items (``(key, value)`` pairs). See - below for documentation of view objects. + Return a new view of the dictionary's items (``(key, value)`` pairs). + See the :ref:`documentation of view objects <dict-views>`. .. method:: keys() - Return a new view of the dictionary's keys. See below for documentation of - view objects. + Return a new view of the dictionary's keys. See the :ref:`documentation + of view objects <dict-views>`. .. method:: pop(key[, default]) @@ -2260,8 +3099,12 @@ pairs within braces, for example: ``{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}`` or ``{4098: .. method:: values() - Return a new view of the dictionary's values. See below for documentation of - view objects. + Return a new view of the dictionary's values. See the + :ref:`documentation of view objects <dict-views>`. + +.. seealso:: + :class:`types.MappingProxyType` can be used to create a read-only view + of a :class:`dict`. .. _dict-views: @@ -2307,7 +3150,7 @@ Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and hashable. If all values are hashable, so that ``(key, value)`` pairs are unique and hashable, then the items view is also set-like. (Values views are not treated as set-like since the entries are generally not unique.) For set-like views, all of the -operations defined for the abstract base class :class:`collections.Set` are +operations defined for the abstract base class :class:`collections.abc.Set` are available (for example, ``==``, ``<``, or ``^``). An example of dictionary view usage:: @@ -2342,159 +3185,6 @@ An example of dictionary view usage:: {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'} -.. _typememoryview: - -memoryview type -=============== - -:class:`memoryview` objects allow Python code to access the internal data -of an object that supports the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` without -copying. Memory is generally interpreted as simple bytes. - -.. class:: memoryview(obj) - - Create a :class:`memoryview` that references *obj*. *obj* must support the - buffer protocol. Built-in objects that support the buffer protocol include - :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`. - - A :class:`memoryview` has the notion of an *element*, which is the - atomic memory unit handled by the originating object *obj*. For many - simple types such as :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`, an element - is a single byte, but other types such as :class:`array.array` may have - bigger elements. - - ``len(view)`` returns the total number of elements in the memoryview, - *view*. The :class:`~memoryview.itemsize` attribute will give you the - number of bytes in a single element. - - A :class:`memoryview` supports slicing to expose its data. Taking a single - index will return a single element as a :class:`bytes` object. Full - slicing will result in a subview:: - - >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg') - >>> v[1] - b'b' - >>> v[-1] - b'g' - >>> v[1:4] - <memory at 0x77ab28> - >>> bytes(v[1:4]) - b'bce' - - If the object the memoryview is over supports changing its data, the - memoryview supports slice assignment:: - - >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg') - >>> v = memoryview(data) - >>> v.readonly - False - >>> v[0] = b'z' - >>> data - bytearray(b'zbcefg') - >>> v[1:4] = b'123' - >>> data - bytearray(b'z123fg') - >>> v[2] = b'spam' - Traceback (most recent call last): - File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> - ValueError: cannot modify size of memoryview object - - Notice how the size of the memoryview object cannot be changed. - - :class:`memoryview` has several methods: - - .. method:: tobytes() - - Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring. This is equivalent to - calling the :class:`bytes` constructor on the memoryview. :: - - >>> m = memoryview(b"abc") - >>> m.tobytes() - b'abc' - >>> bytes(m) - b'abc' - - .. method:: tolist() - - Return the data in the buffer as a list of integers. :: - - >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist() - [97, 98, 99] - - .. method:: release() - - Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview object. Many - objects take special actions when a view is held on them (for example, - a :class:`bytearray` would temporarily forbid resizing); therefore, - calling release() is handy to remove these restrictions (and free any - dangling resources) as soon as possible. - - After this method has been called, any further operation on the view - raises a :class:`ValueError` (except :meth:`release()` itself which can - be called multiple times):: - - >>> m = memoryview(b'abc') - >>> m.release() - >>> m[0] - Traceback (most recent call last): - File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> - ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object - - The context management protocol can be used for a similar effect, - using the ``with`` statement:: - - >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m: - ... m[0] - ... - b'a' - >>> m[0] - Traceback (most recent call last): - File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> - ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object - - .. versionadded:: 3.2 - - There are also several readonly attributes available: - - .. attribute:: format - - A string containing the format (in :mod:`struct` module style) for each - element in the view. This defaults to ``'B'``, a simple bytestring. - - .. attribute:: itemsize - - The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:: - - >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [1,2,3])) - >>> m.itemsize - 2 - >>> m[0] - b'\x01\x00' - >>> len(m[0]) == m.itemsize - True - - .. attribute:: shape - - A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the shape of the - memory as a N-dimensional array. - - .. attribute:: ndim - - An integer indicating how many dimensions of a multi-dimensional array the - memory represents. - - .. attribute:: strides - - A tuple of integers the length of :attr:`ndim` giving the size in bytes to - access each element for each dimension of the array. - - .. attribute:: readonly - - A bool indicating whether the memory is read only. - - .. memoryview.suboffsets isn't documented because it only seems useful for C - - .. _typecontextmanager: Context Manager Types @@ -2716,7 +3406,7 @@ The Null Object This object is returned by functions that don't explicitly return a value. It supports no special operations. There is exactly one null object, named -``None`` (a built-in name). +``None`` (a built-in name). ``type(None)()`` produces the same singleton. It is written as ``None``. @@ -2728,7 +3418,8 @@ The Ellipsis Object This object is commonly used by slicing (see :ref:`slicings`). It supports no special operations. There is exactly one ellipsis object, named -:const:`Ellipsis` (a built-in name). +:const:`Ellipsis` (a built-in name). ``type(Ellipsis)()`` produces the +:const:`Ellipsis` singleton. It is written as ``Ellipsis`` or ``...``. @@ -2740,7 +3431,8 @@ The NotImplemented Object This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they are asked to operate on types they don't support. See :ref:`comparisons` for more -information. +information. There is exactly one ``NotImplemented`` object. +``type(NotImplemented)()`` produces the singleton instance. It is written as ``NotImplemented``. @@ -2806,6 +3498,13 @@ types, where they are relevant. Some of these are not reported by the The name of the class or type. +.. attribute:: class.__qualname__ + + The :term:`qualified name` of the class or type. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: class.__mro__ This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for diff --git a/Doc/library/strings.rst b/Doc/library/strings.rst deleted file mode 100644 index 08f1658..0000000 --- a/Doc/library/strings.rst +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -.. _stringservices: - -*************** -String Services -*************** - -The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string -manipulation operations. - -In addition, Python's built-in string classes support the sequence type methods -described in the :ref:`typesseq` section, and also the string-specific methods -described in the :ref:`string-methods` section. To output formatted strings, -see the :ref:`string-formatting` section. Also, see the :mod:`re` module for -string functions based on regular expressions. - - -.. toctree:: - - string.rst - re.rst - struct.rst - difflib.rst - textwrap.rst - codecs.rst - unicodedata.rst - stringprep.rst - diff --git a/Doc/library/struct.rst b/Doc/library/struct.rst index 12820e0..994506c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/struct.rst +++ b/Doc/library/struct.rst @@ -187,17 +187,24 @@ platform-dependent. | ``Q`` | :c:type:`unsigned long | integer | 8 | \(2), \(3) | | | long` | | | | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ -| ``f`` | :c:type:`float` | float | 4 | \(4) | +| ``n`` | :c:type:`ssize_t` | integer | | \(4) | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ -| ``d`` | :c:type:`double` | float | 8 | \(4) | +| ``N`` | :c:type:`size_t` | integer | | \(4) | ++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ +| ``f`` | :c:type:`float` | float | 4 | \(5) | ++--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ +| ``d`` | :c:type:`double` | float | 8 | \(5) | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ | ``s`` | :c:type:`char[]` | bytes | | | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ | ``p`` | :c:type:`char[]` | bytes | | | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ -| ``P`` | :c:type:`void \*` | integer | | \(5) | +| ``P`` | :c:type:`void \*` | integer | | \(6) | +--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+ +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added support for the ``'n'`` and ``'N'`` formats. + Notes: (1) @@ -219,11 +226,17 @@ Notes: Use of the :meth:`__index__` method for non-integers is new in 3.2. (4) + The ``'n'`` and ``'N'`` conversion codes are only available for the native + size (selected as the default or with the ``'@'`` byte order character). + For the standard size, you can use whichever of the other integer formats + fits your application. + +(5) For the ``'f'`` and ``'d'`` conversion codes, the packed representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32 (for ``'f'``) or binary64 (for ``'d'``) format, regardless of the floating-point format used by the platform. -(5) +(6) The ``'P'`` format character is only available for the native byte ordering (selected as the default or with the ``'@'`` byte order character). The byte order character ``'='`` chooses to use little- or big-endian ordering based diff --git a/Doc/library/subprocess.rst b/Doc/library/subprocess.rst index 9c03e06..042f8f4 100644 --- a/Doc/library/subprocess.rst +++ b/Doc/library/subprocess.rst @@ -30,16 +30,21 @@ convenience functions for all use cases they can handle. For more advanced use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. -.. function:: call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False) +.. function:: call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, timeout=None) Run the command described by *args*. Wait for command to complete, then return the :attr:`returncode` attribute. The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones, described below - in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the slightly odd notation in - the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is the same as - that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this functions passes all - supplied arguments directly through to that interface. + in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the use of keyword-only notation + in the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the + same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this function passes all + supplied arguments other than *timeout* directly through to that interface. + + The *timeout* argument is passed to :meth:`Popen.wait`. If the timeout + expires, the child process will be killed and then waited for again. The + :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be re-raised after the child process + has terminated. Examples:: @@ -62,8 +67,11 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. process may block if it generates enough output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timeout* was added. + -.. function:: check_call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False) +.. function:: check_call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, timeout=None) Run command with arguments. Wait for command to complete. If the return code was zero then return, otherwise raise :exc:`CalledProcessError`. The @@ -71,10 +79,15 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. :attr:`returncode` attribute. The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones, described below - in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the slightly odd notation in - the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is the same as - that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this functions passes all - supplied arguments directly through to that interface. + in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the use of keyword-only notation + in the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the + same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this function passes all + supplied arguments other than *timeout* directly through to that interface. + + The *timeout* argument is passed to :meth:`Popen.wait`. If the timeout + expires, the child process will be killed and then waited for again. The + :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be re-raised after the child process + has terminated. Examples:: @@ -86,8 +99,6 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. ... subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1 - .. versionadded:: 2.5 - .. warning:: Invoking the system shell with ``shell=True`` can be a security hazard @@ -101,8 +112,11 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. process may block if it generates enough output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timeout* was added. + -.. function:: check_output(args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None, shell=False, universal_newlines=False) +.. function:: check_output(args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None, shell=False, universal_newlines=False, timeout=None) Run command with arguments and return its output as a byte string. @@ -112,11 +126,17 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. attribute. The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones, described below - in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the slightly odd notation in - the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the - same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor, except that *stdout* is - not permitted as it is used internally. All other supplied arguments are - passed directly through to the :class:`Popen` constructor. + in :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` (hence the use of keyword-only notation + in the abbreviated signature). The full function signature is largely the + same as that of the :class:`Popen` constructor - this functions passes all + supplied arguments other than *timeout* directly through to that interface. + In addition, *stdout* is not permitted as an argument, as it is used + internally to collect the output from the subprocess. + + The *timeout* argument is passed to :meth:`Popen.wait`. If the timeout + expires, the child process will be killed and then waited for again. The + :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be re-raised after the child process + has terminated. Examples:: @@ -147,7 +167,7 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. ... shell=True) 'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n' - .. versionadded:: 2.7 + .. versionadded:: 3.1 .. warning:: @@ -161,6 +181,18 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. read in the current process, the child process may block if it generates enough output to the pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timeout* was added. + + +.. data:: DEVNULL + + Special value that can be used as the *stdin*, *stdout* or *stderr* argument + to :class:`Popen` and indicates that the special file :data:`os.devnull` + will be used. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. data:: PIPE @@ -176,10 +208,38 @@ use cases, the underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly. output. +.. exception:: SubprocessError + + Base class for all other exceptions from this module. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. exception:: TimeoutExpired + + Subclass of :exc:`SubprocessError`, raised when a timeout expires + while waiting for a child process. + + .. attribute:: cmd + + Command that was used to spawn the child process. + + .. attribute:: timeout + + Timeout in seconds. + + .. attribute:: output + + Output of the child process if this exception is raised by + :func:`check_output`. Otherwise, ``None``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. exception:: CalledProcessError - Exception raised when a process run by :func:`check_call` or - :func:`check_output` returns a non-zero exit status. + Subclass of :exc:`SubprocessError`, raised when a process run by + :func:`check_call` or :func:`check_output` returns a non-zero exit status. .. attribute:: returncode @@ -216,25 +276,27 @@ default values. The arguments that are most commonly needed are: *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* specify the executed program's standard input, standard output and standard error file handles, respectively. Valid values - are :data:`PIPE`, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), an - existing file object, and ``None``. :data:`PIPE` indicates that a new pipe - to the child should be created. With the default settings of ``None``, no - redirection will occur; the child's file handles will be inherited from the - parent. Additionally, *stderr* can be :data:`STDOUT`, which indicates that - the stderr data from the child process should be captured into the same file - handle as for stdout. + are :data:`PIPE`, :data:`DEVNULL`, an existing file descriptor (a positive + integer), an existing file object, and ``None``. :data:`PIPE` indicates + that a new pipe to the child should be created. :data:`DEVNULL` indicates + that the special file :data:`os.devnull` will be used. With the default + settings of ``None``, no redirection will occur; the child's file handles + will be inherited from the parent. Additionally, *stderr* can be + :data:`STDOUT`, which indicates that the stderr data from the child + process should be captured into the same file handle as for *stdout*. .. index:: single: universal newlines; subprocess module - If *universal_newlines* is ``True``, the file objects *stdin*, *stdout* - and *stderr* will be opened as text streams in :term:`universal newlines` - mode using the encoding returned by :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding`. - For *stdin*, line ending characters ``'\n'`` in the input will be converted - to the default line separator :data:`os.linesep`. For *stdout* and - *stderr*, all line endings in the output will be converted to ``'\n'``. - For more information see the documentation of the :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` - class when the *newline* argument to its constructor is ``None``. + If *universal_newlines* is ``True``, the file objects *stdin*, *stdout* and + *stderr* will be opened as text streams in :term:`universal newlines` mode + using the encoding returned by :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) + <locale.getpreferredencoding>`. For *stdin*, line ending characters + ``'\n'`` in the input will be converted to the default line separator + :data:`os.linesep`. For *stdout* and *stderr*, all line endings in the + output will be converted to ``'\n'``. For more information see the + documentation of the :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` class when the *newline* + argument to its constructor is ``None``. .. note:: @@ -254,6 +316,12 @@ default values. The arguments that are most commonly needed are: :mod:`fnmatch`, :func:`os.walk`, :func:`os.path.expandvars`, :func:`os.path.expanduser`, and :mod:`shutil`). + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + When *universal_newlines* is ``True``, the class uses the encoding + :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>` + instead of ``locale.getpreferredencoding()``. See the + :class:`io.TextIOWrapper` class for more information on this change. + .. warning:: Executing shell commands that incorporate unsanitized input from an @@ -369,13 +437,14 @@ functions. *stdin*, *stdout* and *stderr* specify the executed program's standard input, standard output and standard error file handles, respectively. Valid values - are :data:`PIPE`, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), an - existing :term:`file object`, and ``None``. :data:`PIPE` indicates that a - new pipe to the child should be created. With the default settings of - ``None``, no redirection will occur; the child's file handles will be - inherited from the parent. Additionally, *stderr* can be :data:`STDOUT`, - which indicates that the stderr data from the applications should be - captured into the same file handle as for stdout. + are :data:`PIPE`, :data:`DEVNULL`, an existing file descriptor (a positive + integer), an existing :term:`file object`, and ``None``. :data:`PIPE` + indicates that a new pipe to the child should be created. :data:`DEVNULL` + indicates that the special file :data:`os.devnull` will be used. With the + default settings of ``None``, no redirection will occur; the child's file + handles will be inherited from the parent. Additionally, *stderr* can be + :data:`STDOUT`, which indicates that the stderr data from the applications + should be captured into the same file handle as for stdout. If *preexec_fn* is set to a callable object, this object will be called in the child process just before the child is executed. @@ -485,6 +554,15 @@ arguments. :exc:`CalledProcessError` if the called process returns a non-zero return code. +All of the functions and methods that accept a *timeout* parameter, such as +:func:`call` and :meth:`Popen.communicate` will raise :exc:`TimeoutExpired` if +the timeout expires before the process exits. + +Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from :exc:`SubprocessError`. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The :exc:`SubprocessError` base class was added. + Security ^^^^^^^^ @@ -508,11 +586,15 @@ Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods: attribute. -.. method:: Popen.wait() +.. method:: Popen.wait(timeout=None) Wait for child process to terminate. Set and return :attr:`returncode` attribute. + If the process does not terminate after *timeout* seconds, raise a + :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception. It is safe to catch this exception and + retry the wait. + .. warning:: This will deadlock when using ``stdout=PIPE`` and/or @@ -520,13 +602,17 @@ Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods: a pipe such that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to accept more data. Use :meth:`communicate` to avoid that. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timeout* was added. + -.. method:: Popen.communicate(input=None) +.. method:: Popen.communicate(input=None, timeout=None) Interact with process: Send data to stdin. Read data from stdout and stderr, - until end-of-file is reached. Wait for process to terminate. The optional - *input* argument should be a byte string to be sent to the child process, or - ``None``, if no data should be sent to the child. + until end-of-file is reached. Wait for process to terminate. The optional + *input* argument should be data to be sent to the child process, or + ``None``, if no data should be sent to the child. The type of *input* + must be bytes or, if *universal_newlines* was ``True``, a string. :meth:`communicate` returns a tuple ``(stdoutdata, stderrdata)``. @@ -535,11 +621,29 @@ Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods: ``None`` in the result tuple, you need to give ``stdout=PIPE`` and/or ``stderr=PIPE`` too. + If the process does not terminate after *timeout* seconds, a + :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be raised. Catching this exception and + retrying communication will not lose any output. + + The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order to + cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the child process and + finish communication:: + + proc = subprocess.Popen(...) + try: + outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15) + except TimeoutExpired: + proc.kill() + outs, errs = proc.communicate() + .. note:: The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this method if the data size is large or unlimited. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *timeout* was added. + .. method:: Popen.send_signal(signal) @@ -981,3 +1085,9 @@ runtime): backslash. If the number of backslashes is odd, the last backslash escapes the next double quotation mark as described in rule 3. + + +.. seealso:: + + :mod:`shlex` + Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines. diff --git a/Doc/library/sys.rst b/Doc/library/sys.rst index 0e4adec..cd6d4bf 100644 --- a/Doc/library/sys.rst +++ b/Doc/library/sys.rst @@ -29,6 +29,33 @@ always available. command line, see the :mod:`fileinput` module. +.. data:: base_exec_prefix + + Set during Python startup, before ``site.py`` is run, to the same value as + :data:`exec_prefix`. If not running in a + :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>`, the values will stay the same; if + ``site.py`` finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of + :data:`prefix` and :data:`exec_prefix` will be changed to point to the + virtual environment, whereas :data:`base_prefix` and + :data:`base_exec_prefix` will remain pointing to the base Python + installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: base_prefix + + Set during Python startup, before ``site.py`` is run, to the same value as + :data:`prefix`. If not running in a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>`, the values + will stay the same; if ``site.py`` finds that a virtual environment is in + use, the values of :data:`prefix` and :data:`exec_prefix` will be changed to + point to the virtual environment, whereas :data:`base_prefix` and + :data:`base_exec_prefix` will remain pointing to the base Python + installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from). + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. data:: byteorder An indicator of the native byte order. This will have the value ``'big'`` on @@ -80,6 +107,22 @@ always available. This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. +.. function:: _debugmallocstats() + + Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython's memory + allocator. + + If Python is configured --with-pydebug, it also performs some expensive + internal consistency checks. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. impl-detail:: + + This function is specific to CPython. The exact output format is not + defined here, and may change. + + .. data:: dllhandle Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL. Availability: Windows. @@ -199,6 +242,11 @@ always available. installed in :file:`{exec_prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}/lib-dynload`, where *X.Y* is the version number of Python, for example ``3.2``. + .. note:: If a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>` is in effect, this + value will be changed in ``site.py`` to point to the virtual environment. + The value for the Python installation will still be available, via + :data:`base_exec_prefix`. + .. data:: executable @@ -235,14 +283,13 @@ always available. .. data:: flags - The struct sequence *flags* exposes the status of command line flags. The - attributes are read only. + The :term:`struct sequence` *flags* exposes the status of command line + flags. The attributes are read only. ============================= ============================= attribute flag ============================= ============================= :const:`debug` :option:`-d` - :const:`division_warning` :option:`-Q` :const:`inspect` :option:`-i` :const:`interactive` :option:`-i` :const:`optimize` :option:`-O` or :option:`-OO` @@ -262,15 +309,18 @@ always available. .. versionadded:: 3.2.3 The ``hash_randomization`` attribute. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Removed obsolete ``division_warning`` attribute. + .. data:: float_info - A structseq holding information about the float type. It contains low level - information about the precision and internal representation. The values - correspond to the various floating-point constants defined in the standard - header file :file:`float.h` for the 'C' programming language; see section - 5.2.4.2.2 of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard [C99]_, 'Characteristics of - floating types', for details. + A :term:`struct sequence` holding information about the float type. It + contains low level information about the precision and internal + representation. The values correspond to the various floating-point + constants defined in the standard header file :file:`float.h` for the 'C' + programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2 of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard + [C99]_, 'Characteristics of floating types', for details. +---------------------+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+ | attribute | float.h macro | explanation | @@ -409,6 +459,9 @@ always available. does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is implementation specific. + Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is + accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to. + If given, *default* will be returned if the object does not provide means to retrieve the size. Otherwise a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised. @@ -520,8 +573,9 @@ always available. .. data:: hash_info - A structseq giving parameters of the numeric hash implementation. For - more details about hashing of numeric types, see :ref:`numeric-hash`. + A :term:`struct sequence` giving parameters of the numeric hash + implementation. For more details about hashing of numeric types, see + :ref:`numeric-hash`. +---------------------+--------------------------------------------------+ | attribute | explanation | @@ -556,8 +610,8 @@ always available. This is called ``hexversion`` since it only really looks meaningful when viewed as the result of passing it to the built-in :func:`hex` function. The - struct sequence :data:`sys.version_info` may be used for a more human-friendly - encoding of the same information. + :term:`struct sequence` :data:`sys.version_info` may be used for a more + human-friendly encoding of the same information. The ``hexversion`` is a 32-bit number with the following layout: @@ -583,10 +637,51 @@ always available. Thus ``2.1.0a3`` is hexversion ``0x020100a3``. + +.. data:: implementation + + An object containing information about the implementation of the + currently running Python interpreter. The following attributes are + required to exist in all Python implementations. + + *name* is the implementation's identifier, e.g. ``'cpython'``. The actual + string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is guaranteed to be + lower case. + + *version* is a named tuple, in the same format as + :data:`sys.version_info`. It represents the version of the Python + *implementation*. This has a distinct meaning from the specific + version of the Python *language* to which the currently running + interpreter conforms, which ``sys.version_info`` represents. For + example, for PyPy 1.8 ``sys.implementation.version`` might be + ``sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)``, whereas ``sys.version_info`` + would be ``sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)``. For CPython they + are the same value, since it is the reference implementation. + + *hexversion* is the implementation version in hexadecimal format, like + :data:`sys.hexversion`. + + *cache_tag* is the tag used by the import machinery in the filenames of + cached modules. By convention, it would be a composite of the + implementation's name and version, like ``'cpython-33'``. However, a + Python implementation may use some other value if appropriate. If + ``cache_tag`` is set to ``None``, it indicates that module caching should + be disabled. + + :data:`sys.implementation` may contain additional attributes specific to + the Python implementation. These non-standard attributes must start with + an underscore, and are not described here. Regardless of its contents, + :data:`sys.implementation` will not change during a run of the interpreter, + nor between implementation versions. (It may change between Python + language versions, however.) See `PEP 421` for more information. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. data:: int_info - A struct sequence that holds information about Python's - internal representation of integers. The attributes are read only. + A :term:`struct sequence` that holds information about Python's internal + representation of integers. The attributes are read only. +-------------------------+----------------------------------------------+ | Attribute | Explanation | @@ -641,9 +736,13 @@ always available. .. data:: maxunicode - An integer giving the largest supported code point for a Unicode character. The - value of this depends on the configuration option that specifies whether Unicode - characters are stored as UCS-2 or UCS-4. + An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point, + i.e. ``1114111`` (``0x10FFFF`` in hexadecimal). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Before :pep:`393`, ``sys.maxunicode`` used to be either ``0xFFFF`` + or ``0x10FFFF``, depending on the configuration option that specified + whether Unicode characters were stored as UCS-2 or UCS-4. .. data:: meta_path @@ -718,36 +817,35 @@ always available. This string contains a platform identifier that can be used to append platform-specific components to :data:`sys.path`, for instance. - For most Unix systems, this is the lowercased OS name as returned by ``uname - -s`` with the first part of the version as returned by ``uname -r`` appended, - e.g. ``'sunos5'``, *at the time when Python was built*. Unless you want to - test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended to use the - following idiom:: + For Unix systems, except on Linux, this is the lowercased OS name as + returned by ``uname -s`` with the first part of the version as returned by + ``uname -r`` appended, e.g. ``'sunos5'`` or ``'freebsd8'``, *at the time + when Python was built*. Unless you want to test for a specific system + version, it is therefore recommended to use the following idiom:: if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'): # FreeBSD-specific code here... elif sys.platform.startswith('linux'): # Linux-specific code here... - .. versionchanged:: 3.2.2 - Since lots of code check for ``sys.platform == 'linux2'``, and there is - no essential change between Linux 2.x and 3.x, ``sys.platform`` is always - set to ``'linux2'``, even on Linux 3.x. In Python 3.3 and later, the - value will always be set to ``'linux'``, so it is recommended to always - use the ``startswith`` idiom presented above. - For other systems, the values are: - ====================== =========================== - System :data:`platform` value - ====================== =========================== - Linux (2.x *and* 3.x) ``'linux2'`` - Windows ``'win32'`` - Windows/Cygwin ``'cygwin'`` - Mac OS X ``'darwin'`` - OS/2 ``'os2'`` - OS/2 EMX ``'os2emx'`` - ====================== =========================== + ================ =========================== + System :data:`platform` value + ================ =========================== + Linux ``'linux'`` + Windows ``'win32'`` + Windows/Cygwin ``'cygwin'`` + Mac OS X ``'darwin'`` + OS/2 ``'os2'`` + OS/2 EMX ``'os2emx'`` + ================ =========================== + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + On Linux, :attr:`sys.platform` doesn't contain the major version anymore. + It is always ``'linux'``, instead of ``'linux2'`` or ``'linux3'``. Since + older Python versions include the version number, it is recommended to + always use the ``startswith`` idiom presented above. .. seealso:: @@ -764,11 +862,16 @@ always available. independent Python files are installed; by default, this is the string ``'/usr/local'``. This can be set at build time with the ``--prefix`` argument to the :program:`configure` script. The main collection of Python - library modules is installed in the directory :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}`` + library modules is installed in the directory :file:`{prefix}/lib/python{X.Y}` while the platform independent header files (all except :file:`pyconfig.h`) are stored in :file:`{prefix}/include/python{X.Y}`, where *X.Y* is the version number of Python, for example ``3.2``. + .. note:: If a :ref:`virtual environment <venv-def>` is in effect, this + value will be changed in ``site.py`` to point to the virtual + environment. The value for the Python installation will still be + available, via :data:`base_prefix`. + .. data:: ps1 ps2 @@ -806,11 +909,11 @@ always available. the interpreter loads extension modules. Among other things, this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a module, if called as ``sys.setdlopenflags(0)``. To share symbols across extension modules, call as - ``sys.setdlopenflags(ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL)``. Symbolic names for the - flag modules can be either found in the :mod:`ctypes` module, or in the :mod:`DLFCN` - module. If :mod:`DLFCN` is not available, it can be generated from - :file:`/usr/include/dlfcn.h` using the :program:`h2py` script. Availability: - Unix. + ``sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)``. Symbolic names for the flag modules + can be found in the :mod:`os` module (``RTLD_xxx`` constants, e.g. + :data:`os.RTLD_LAZY`). + + Availability: Unix. .. function:: setprofile(profilefunc) @@ -1003,22 +1106,33 @@ always available. to a console and Python apps started with :program:`pythonw`. -.. data:: subversion +.. data:: thread_info - A triple (repo, branch, version) representing the Subversion information of the - Python interpreter. *repo* is the name of the repository, ``'CPython'``. - *branch* is a string of one of the forms ``'trunk'``, ``'branches/name'`` or - ``'tags/name'``. *version* is the output of ``svnversion``, if the interpreter - was built from a Subversion checkout; it contains the revision number (range) - and possibly a trailing 'M' if there were local modifications. If the tree was - exported (or svnversion was not available), it is the revision of - ``Include/patchlevel.h`` if the branch is a tag. Otherwise, it is ``None``. + A :term:`struct sequence` holding information about the thread + implementation. - .. deprecated:: 3.2.1 - Python is now `developed <http://docs.python.org/devguide/>`_ using - Mercurial. In recent Python 3.2 bugfix releases, :data:`subversion` - therefore contains placeholder information. It is removed in Python - 3.3. + +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+ + | Attribute | Explanation | + +==================+=========================================================+ + | :const:`name` | Name of the thread implementation: | + | | | + | | * ``'nt'``: Windows threads | + | | * ``'os2'``: OS/2 threads | + | | * ``'pthread'``: POSIX threads | + | | * ``'solaris'``: Solaris threads | + +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+ + | :const:`lock` | Name of the lock implementation: | + | | | + | | * ``'semaphore'``: a lock uses a semaphore | + | | * ``'mutex+cond'``: a lock uses a mutex | + | | and a condition variable | + | | * ``None`` if this information is unknown | + +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+ + | :const:`version` | Name and version of the thread library. It is a string, | + | | or ``None`` if these informations are unknown. | + +------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+ + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 .. data:: tracebacklimit diff --git a/Doc/library/syslog.rst b/Doc/library/syslog.rst index 974ecf9..6e90dc0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/syslog.rst +++ b/Doc/library/syslog.rst @@ -79,12 +79,14 @@ Priority levels (high to low): Facilities: :const:`LOG_KERN`, :const:`LOG_USER`, :const:`LOG_MAIL`, :const:`LOG_DAEMON`, :const:`LOG_AUTH`, :const:`LOG_LPR`, :const:`LOG_NEWS`, :const:`LOG_UUCP`, - :const:`LOG_CRON`, :const:`LOG_SYSLOG` and :const:`LOG_LOCAL0` to - :const:`LOG_LOCAL7`. + :const:`LOG_CRON`, :const:`LOG_SYSLOG`, :const:`LOG_LOCAL0` to + :const:`LOG_LOCAL7`, and, if defined in ``<syslog.h>``, + :const:`LOG_AUTHPRIV`. Log options: - :const:`LOG_PID`, :const:`LOG_CONS`, :const:`LOG_NDELAY`, :const:`LOG_NOWAIT` - and :const:`LOG_PERROR` if defined in ``<syslog.h>``. + :const:`LOG_PID`, :const:`LOG_CONS`, :const:`LOG_NDELAY`, and, if defined + in ``<syslog.h>``, :const:`LOG_ODELAY`, :const:`LOG_NOWAIT`, and + :const:`LOG_PERROR`. Examples diff --git a/Doc/library/tarfile.rst b/Doc/library/tarfile.rst index 46e4900..86dd33d 100644 --- a/Doc/library/tarfile.rst +++ b/Doc/library/tarfile.rst @@ -13,13 +13,13 @@ -------------- The :mod:`tarfile` module makes it possible to read and write tar -archives, including those using gzip or bz2 compression. +archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression. Use the :mod:`zipfile` module to read or write :file:`.zip` files, or the higher-level functions in :ref:`shutil <archiving-operations>`. Some facts and figures: -* reads and writes :mod:`gzip` and :mod:`bz2` compressed archives. +* reads and writes :mod:`gzip`, :mod:`bz2` and :mod:`lzma` compressed archives. * read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format. @@ -33,6 +33,9 @@ Some facts and figures: character devices and block devices and is able to acquire and restore file information like timestamp, access permissions and owner. +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added support for :mod:`lzma` compression. + .. function:: open(name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None, bufsize=10240, \*\*kwargs) @@ -56,6 +59,8 @@ Some facts and figures: +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ | ``'r:bz2'`` | Open for reading with bzip2 compression. | +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ + | ``'r:xz'`` | Open for reading with lzma compression. | + +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ | ``'a' or 'a:'`` | Open for appending with no compression. The | | | file is created if it does not exist. | +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ @@ -65,11 +70,13 @@ Some facts and figures: +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ | ``'w:bz2'`` | Open for bzip2 compressed writing. | +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ + | ``'w:xz'`` | Open for lzma compressed writing. | + +------------------+---------------------------------------------+ - Note that ``'a:gz'`` or ``'a:bz2'`` is not possible. If *mode* is not suitable - to open a certain (compressed) file for reading, :exc:`ReadError` is raised. Use - *mode* ``'r'`` to avoid this. If a compression method is not supported, - :exc:`CompressionError` is raised. + Note that ``'a:gz'``, ``'a:bz2'`` or ``'a:xz'`` is not possible. If *mode* + is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for reading, + :exc:`ReadError` is raised. Use *mode* ``'r'`` to avoid this. If a + compression method is not supported, :exc:`CompressionError` is raised. If *fileobj* is specified, it is used as an alternative to a :term:`file object` opened in binary mode for *name*. It is supposed to be at position 0. @@ -100,6 +107,9 @@ Some facts and figures: | ``'r|bz2'`` | Open a bzip2 compressed *stream* for | | | reading. | +-------------+--------------------------------------------+ + | ``'r|xz'`` | Open a lzma compressed *stream* for | + | | reading. | + +-------------+--------------------------------------------+ | ``'w|'`` | Open an uncompressed *stream* for writing. | +-------------+--------------------------------------------+ | ``'w|gz'`` | Open a gzip compressed *stream* for | @@ -108,6 +118,9 @@ Some facts and figures: | ``'w|bz2'`` | Open a bzip2 compressed *stream* for | | | writing. | +-------------+--------------------------------------------+ + | ``'w|xz'`` | Open an lzma compressed *stream* for | + | | writing. | + +-------------+--------------------------------------------+ .. class:: TarFile @@ -263,9 +276,9 @@ be finalized; only the internally used file object will be closed. See the If *errorlevel* is ``0``, all errors are ignored when using :meth:`TarFile.extract`. Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output, when debugging - is enabled. If ``1``, all *fatal* errors are raised as :exc:`OSError` or - :exc:`IOError` exceptions. If ``2``, all *non-fatal* errors are raised as - :exc:`TarError` exceptions as well. + is enabled. If ``1``, all *fatal* errors are raised as :exc:`OSError` + exceptions. If ``2``, all *non-fatal* errors are raised as :exc:`TarError` + exceptions as well. The *encoding* and *errors* arguments define the character encoding to be used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion errors are going @@ -363,15 +376,12 @@ be finalized; only the internally used file object will be closed. See the .. method:: TarFile.extractfile(member) Extract a member from the archive as a file object. *member* may be a filename - or a :class:`TarInfo` object. If *member* is a regular file, a :term:`file-like - object` is returned. If *member* is a link, a file-like object is constructed from - the link's target. If *member* is none of the above, :const:`None` is returned. - - .. note:: + or a :class:`TarInfo` object. If *member* is a regular file or a link, an + :class:`io.BufferedReader` object is returned. Otherwise, :const:`None` is + returned. - The file-like object is read-only. It provides the methods - :meth:`read`, :meth:`readline`, :meth:`readlines`, :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell`, - and :meth:`close`, and also supports iteration over its lines. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Return an :class:`io.BufferedReader` object. .. method:: TarFile.add(name, arcname=None, recursive=True, exclude=None, *, filter=None) diff --git a/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst b/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst index 646634d..9bc79c5 100644 --- a/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst @@ -162,9 +162,13 @@ Telnet Objects .. method:: Telnet.write(buffer) Write a byte string to the socket, doubling any IAC characters. This can - block if the connection is blocked. May raise :exc:`socket.error` if the + block if the connection is blocked. May raise :exc:`OSError` if the connection is closed. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This method used to raise :exc:`socket.error`, which is now an alias + of :exc:`OSError`. + .. method:: Telnet.interact() diff --git a/Doc/library/tempfile.rst b/Doc/library/tempfile.rst index fff6c4e..dfeb250 100644 --- a/Doc/library/tempfile.rst +++ b/Doc/library/tempfile.rst @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ instead a string of six random characters is used. Also, all the user-callable functions now take additional arguments which allow direct control over the location and name of temporary files. It is -no longer necessary to use the global *tempdir* and *template* variables. +no longer necessary to use the global *tempdir* variable. To maintain backward compatibility, the argument order is somewhat odd; it is recommended to use keyword arguments for clarity. diff --git a/Doc/library/test.rst b/Doc/library/test.rst index 40f4115..2e8ba32 100644 --- a/Doc/library/test.rst +++ b/Doc/library/test.rst @@ -80,17 +80,12 @@ A basic boilerplate is often used:: ... more test classes ... - def test_main(): - support.run_unittest(MyTestCase1, - MyTestCase2, - ... list other tests ... - ) - if __name__ == '__main__': - test_main() + unittest.main() -This boilerplate code allows the testing suite to be run by :mod:`test.regrtest` -as well as on its own as a script. +This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by :mod:`test.regrtest`, +on its own as a script that supports the :mod:`unittest` CLI, or via the +`python -m unittest` CLI. The goal for regression testing is to try to break code. This leads to a few guidelines to be followed: @@ -129,22 +124,27 @@ guidelines to be followed: as what type of input is used. Minimize code duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that specifies the input:: - class TestFuncAcceptsSequences(unittest.TestCase): + class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin: func = mySuperWhammyFunction def test_func(self): self.func(self.arg) - class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequences): + class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = [1, 2, 3] - class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequences): + class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = 'abc' - class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequences): + class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = (1, 2, 3) + When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit from + `unittest.TestCase` are run as tests. The `Mixin` class in the example above + does not have any data and so can't be run by itself, thus it does not + inherit from `unittest.TestCase`. + .. seealso:: @@ -160,14 +160,15 @@ Running tests using the command-line interface The :mod:`test` package can be run as a script to drive Python's regression test suite, thanks to the :option:`-m` option: :program:`python -m test`. Under the hood, it uses :mod:`test.regrtest`; the call :program:`python -m -test.regrtest` used in previous Python versions still works). -Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression -tests in the :mod:`test` package. It does this by finding all modules in the -package whose name starts with ``test_``, importing them, and executing the -function :func:`test_main` if present. The names of tests to execute may also -be passed to the script. Specifying a single regression test (:program:`python --m test test_spam`) will minimize output and only print -whether the test passed or failed and thus minimize output. +test.regrtest` used in previous Python versions still works). Running the +script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests in the +:mod:`test` package. It does this by finding all modules in the package whose +name starts with ``test_``, importing them, and executing the function +:func:`test_main` if present or loading the tests via +unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ``test_main`` does not exist. The +names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script. Specifying a single +regression test (:program:`python -m test test_spam`) will minimize output and +only print whether the test passed or failed. Running :mod:`test` directly allows what resources are available for tests to use to be set. You do this by using the ``-u`` command-line @@ -223,14 +224,14 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following constants: .. data:: verbose - :const:`True` when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more + ``True`` when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more detailed information is desired about a running test. *verbose* is set by :mod:`test.regrtest`. .. data:: is_jython - :const:`True` if the running interpreter is Jython. + ``True`` if the running interpreter is Jython. .. data:: TESTFN @@ -249,7 +250,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: .. function:: is_resource_enabled(resource) - Return :const:`True` if *resource* is enabled and available. The list of + Return ``True`` if *resource* is enabled and available. The list of available resources is only set when :mod:`test.regrtest` is executing the tests. @@ -258,7 +259,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: Raise :exc:`ResourceDenied` if *resource* is not available. *msg* is the argument to :exc:`ResourceDenied` if it is raised. Always returns - :const:`True` if called by a function whose ``__name__`` is ``'__main__'``. + ``True`` if called by a function whose ``__name__`` is ``'__main__'``. Used when tests are executed by :mod:`test.regrtest`. @@ -286,6 +287,15 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: This will run all tests defined in the named module. +.. function:: run_doctest(module, verbosity=None) + + Run :func:`doctest.testmod` on the given *module*. Return + ``(failure_count, test_count)``. + + If *verbosity* is ``None``, :func:`doctest.testmod` is run with verbosity + set to :data:`verbose`. Otherwise, it is run with verbosity set to + ``None``. + .. function:: check_warnings(\*filters, quiet=True) A convenience wrapper for :func:`warnings.catch_warnings()` that makes it @@ -296,12 +306,12 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: ``check_warnings`` accepts 2-tuples of the form ``("message regexp", WarningCategory)`` as positional arguments. If one or more *filters* are - provided, or if the optional keyword argument *quiet* is :const:`False`, + provided, or if the optional keyword argument *quiet* is ``False``, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected: each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test fails. To disable the first of these checks, - set *quiet* to :const:`True`. + set *quiet* to ``True``. If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:: @@ -316,7 +326,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: representing the most recent warning can also be accessed directly through the recorder object (see example below). If no warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would otherwise be expected on an object - representing a warning will return :const:`None`. + representing a warning will return ``None``. The recorder object also has a :meth:`reset` method, which clears the warnings list. @@ -354,7 +364,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: .. function:: captured_stdout() - This is a context manager that runs the :keyword:`with` statement body using + A context manager that runs the :keyword:`with` statement body using a :class:`StringIO.StringIO` object as sys.stdout. That object can be retrieved using the ``as`` clause of the :keyword:`with` statement. @@ -365,6 +375,57 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: assert s.getvalue() == "hello\n" +.. function:: temp_cwd(name='tempcwd', quiet=False, path=None) + + A context manager that temporarily changes the current working + directory (CWD). + + An existing path may be provided as *path*, in which case this function + makes no changes to the file system. + + Otherwise, the new CWD is created in the current directory and it's named + *name*. If *quiet* is ``False`` and it's not possible to create or + change the CWD, an error is raised. If it's ``True``, only a warning + is raised and the original CWD is used. + + +.. function:: temp_umask(umask) + + A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask. + + +.. function:: can_symlink() + + Return ``True`` if the OS supports symbolic links, ``False`` + otherwise. + + +.. decorator:: skip_unless_symlink() + + A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic links. + + +.. decorator:: anticipate_failure(condition) + + A decorator to conditionally mark tests with + :func:`unittest.expectedFailure`. Any use of this decorator should + have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue. + + +.. decorator:: run_with_locale(catstr, *locales) + + A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly + resetting it after it has finished. *catstr* is the locale category as + a string (for example ``"LC_ALL"``). The *locales* passed will be tried + sequentially, and the first valid locale will be used. + + +.. function:: make_bad_fd() + + Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a temporary file, + and returning its descripor. + + .. function:: import_module(name, deprecated=False) This function imports and returns the named module. Unlike a normal @@ -372,7 +433,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: cannot be imported. Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import - if *deprecated* is :const:`True`. + if *deprecated* is ``True``. .. versionadded:: 3.1 @@ -396,9 +457,9 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: ``sys.modules`` when the fresh import is complete. Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import - if *deprecated* is :const:`True`. + if *deprecated* is ``True``. - This function will raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` is the named module + This function will raise :exc:`unittest.SkipTest` if the named module cannot be imported. Example use:: @@ -413,6 +474,48 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions: .. versionadded:: 3.1 +.. function:: bind_port(sock, host=HOST) + + Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number. Relies on + ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port. This is + important as many tests may be running simultaneously, especially in a + buildbot environment. This method raises an exception if the + ``sock.family`` is :const:`~socket.AF_INET` and ``sock.type`` is + :const:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`, and the socket has + :const:`~socket.SO_REUSEADDR` or :const:`~socket.SO_REUSEPORT` set on it. + Tests should never set these socket options for TCP/IP sockets. + The only case for setting these options is testing multicasting via + multiple UDP sockets. + + Additionally, if the :const:`~socket.SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE` socket option is + available (i.e. on Windows), it will be set on the socket. This will + prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the duration of the + test. + + +.. function:: find_unused_port(family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM) + + Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding. This is + achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and type as + the ``sock`` parameter (default is :const:`~socket.AF_INET`, + :const:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`), + and binding it to the specified host address (defaults to ``0.0.0.0``) + with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused ephemeral port from the OS. + The temporary socket is then closed and deleted, and the ephemeral port is + returned. + + Either this method or :func:`bind_port` should be used for any tests + where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular port for the + duration of the test. + Which one to use depends on whether the calling code is creating a python + socket, or if an unused port needs to be provided in a constructor + or passed to an external program (i.e. the ``-accept`` argument to + openssl's s_server mode). Always prefer :func:`bind_port` over + :func:`find_unused_port` where possible. Using a hard coded port is + discouraged since it can makes multiple instances of the test impossible to + run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots. + + The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following classes: .. class:: TransientResource(exc, **kwargs) diff --git a/Doc/library/text.rst b/Doc/library/text.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..47b6784 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/text.rst @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +.. _stringservices: +.. _textservices: + +************************ +Text Processing Services +************************ + +The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string +manipulation operations and other text processing services. + +The :mod:`codecs` module described under :ref:`binaryservices` is also +highly relevant to text processing. In addition, see the documentation for +Python's built-in string type in :ref:`textseq`. + + +.. toctree:: + + string.rst + re.rst + difflib.rst + textwrap.rst + unicodedata.rst + stringprep.rst + readline.rst + rlcompleter.rst + diff --git a/Doc/library/textwrap.rst b/Doc/library/textwrap.rst index 3c1ecf6..c625254 100644 --- a/Doc/library/textwrap.rst +++ b/Doc/library/textwrap.rst @@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ The :mod:`textwrap` module provides two convenience functions, :func:`wrap` and :func:`fill`, as well as :class:`TextWrapper`, the class that does all the work, -and a utility function :func:`dedent`. If you're just wrapping or filling one +and two utility functions, :func:`dedent` and :func:`indent`. If you're just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance of :class:`TextWrapper` for efficiency. @@ -48,9 +48,10 @@ Text is preferably wrapped on whitespaces and right after the hyphens in hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary, unless :attr:`TextWrapper.break_long_words` is set to false. -An additional utility function, :func:`dedent`, is provided to remove -indentation from strings that have unwanted whitespace to the left of the text. - +Two additional utility function, :func:`dedent` and :func:`indent`, are +provided to remove indentation from strings that have unwanted whitespace +to the left of the text and to add an arbitrary prefix to selected lines +in a block of text. .. function:: dedent(text) @@ -75,6 +76,32 @@ indentation from strings that have unwanted whitespace to the left of the text. print(repr(dedent(s))) # prints 'hello\n world\n' +.. function:: indent(text, prefix, predicate=None) + + Add *prefix* to the beginning of selected lines in *text*. + + Lines are separated by calling ``text.splitlines(True)``. + + By default, *prefix* is added to all lines that do not consist + solely of whitespace (including any line endings). + + For example:: + + >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld' + >>> indent(s, ' ') + ' hello\n\n \n world' + + The optional *predicate* argument can be used to control which lines + are indented. For example, it is easy to add *prefix* to even empty + and whitespace-only lines:: + + >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True)) + + hello + + + + + + world + + .. class:: TextWrapper(**kwargs) The :class:`TextWrapper` constructor accepts a number of optional keyword @@ -110,6 +137,15 @@ indentation from strings that have unwanted whitespace to the left of the text. expanded to spaces using the :meth:`expandtabs` method of *text*. + .. attribute:: tabsize + + (default: ``8``) If :attr:`expand_tabs` is true, then all tab characters + in *text* will be expanded to zero or more spaces, depending on the + current column and the given tab size. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. attribute:: replace_whitespace (default: ``True``) If true, after tab expansion but before wrapping, diff --git a/Doc/library/threading.rst b/Doc/library/threading.rst index 43087ef..7ab739b 100644 --- a/Doc/library/threading.rst +++ b/Doc/library/threading.rst @@ -20,17 +20,6 @@ The :mod:`dummy_threading` module is provided for situations where methods and functions in this module in the Python 2.x series are still supported by this module. -.. impl-detail:: - - Due to the :term:`Global Interpreter Lock`, in CPython only one thread - can execute Python code at once (even though certain performance-oriented - libraries might overcome this limitation). - If you want your application to make better of use of the computational - resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use - :mod:`multiprocessing` or :class:`concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor`. - However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run - multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously. - This module defines the following functions and objects: @@ -59,6 +48,17 @@ This module defines the following functions and objects: returned. +.. function:: get_ident() + + Return the 'thread identifier' of the current thread. This is a nonzero + integer. Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended as a magic cookie + to be used e.g. to index a dictionary of thread-specific data. Thread + identifiers may be recycled when a thread exits and another thread is + created. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: enumerate() Return a list of all :class:`Thread` objects currently alive. The list @@ -134,7 +134,6 @@ This module defines the following functions and objects: .. class:: Thread - :noindex: A class that represents a thread of control. This class can be safely subclassed in a limited fashion. @@ -174,7 +173,7 @@ This module defines the following functions and objects: *size* argument specifies the stack size to be used for subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768 (32kB). If changing the thread stack size is - unsupported, a :exc:`ThreadError` is raised. If the specified stack size is + unsupported, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised. If the specified stack size is invalid, a :exc:`ValueError` is raised and the stack size is unmodified. 32kB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself. Note that some platforms may have @@ -239,10 +238,11 @@ called is terminated. A thread has a name. The name can be passed to the constructor, and read or changed through the :attr:`~Thread.name` attribute. -A thread can be flagged as a "daemon thread". The significance of this flag -is that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads are left. -The initial value is inherited from the creating thread. The flag can be -set through the :attr:`~Thread.daemon` property. +A thread can be flagged as a "daemon thread". The significance of this flag is +that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads are left. The +initial value is inherited from the creating thread. The flag can be set +through the :attr:`~Thread.daemon` property or the *daemon* constructor +argument. There is a "main thread" object; this corresponds to the initial thread of control in the Python program. It is not a daemon thread. @@ -255,7 +255,8 @@ daemonic, and cannot be :meth:`~Thread.join`\ ed. They are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads. -.. class:: Thread(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}) +.. class:: Thread(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, *, \ + daemon=None) This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. Arguments are: @@ -274,10 +275,17 @@ since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads. *kwargs* is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation. Defaults to ``{}``. + If not ``None``, *daemon* explicitly sets whether the thread is daemonic. + If ``None`` (the default), the daemonic property is inherited from the + current thread. + If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to invoke the base class constructor (``Thread.__init__()``) before doing anything else to the thread. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *daemon* argument. + .. method:: start() Start the thread's activity. @@ -368,6 +376,18 @@ since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads. property instead. +.. impl-detail:: + + Due to the :term:`Global Interpreter Lock`, in CPython only one thread + can execute Python code at once (even though certain performance-oriented + libraries might overcome this limitation). + If you want your application to make better of use of the computational + resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use + :mod:`multiprocessing` or :class:`concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor`. + However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run + multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously. + + .. _lock-objects: Lock Objects @@ -435,7 +455,7 @@ All methods are executed atomically. are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed. - When invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`ThreadError` is raised. + When invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised. There is no return value. @@ -973,27 +993,3 @@ is equivalent to:: Currently, :class:`Lock`, :class:`RLock`, :class:`Condition`, :class:`Semaphore`, and :class:`BoundedSemaphore` objects may be used as :keyword:`with` statement context managers. - - -.. _threaded-imports: - -Importing in threaded code --------------------------- - -While the import machinery is thread-safe, there are two key restrictions on -threaded imports due to inherent limitations in the way that thread-safety is -provided: - -* Firstly, other than in the main module, an import should not have the - side effect of spawning a new thread and then waiting for that thread in - any way. Failing to abide by this restriction can lead to a deadlock if - the spawned thread directly or indirectly attempts to import a module. -* Secondly, all import attempts must be completed before the interpreter - starts shutting itself down. This can be most easily achieved by only - performing imports from non-daemon threads created through the threading - module. Daemon threads and threads created directly with the thread - module will require some other form of synchronization to ensure they do - not attempt imports after system shutdown has commenced. Failure to - abide by this restriction will lead to intermittent exceptions and - crashes during interpreter shutdown (as the late imports attempt to - access machinery which is no longer in a valid state). diff --git a/Doc/library/time.rst b/Doc/library/time.rst index e0c7007..799140c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/time.rst +++ b/Doc/library/time.rst @@ -41,25 +41,6 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order. parsed, they are converted according to the POSIX and ISO C standards: values 69--99 are mapped to 1969--1999, and values 0--68 are mapped to 2000--2068. - For backward compatibility, years with less than 4 digits are treated - specially by :func:`asctime`, :func:`mktime`, and :func:`strftime` functions - that operate on a 9-tuple or :class:`struct_time` values. If year (the first - value in the 9-tuple) is specified with less than 4 digits, its interpretation - depends on the value of ``accept2dyear`` variable. - - If ``accept2dyear`` is true (default), a backward compatibility behavior is - invoked as follows: - - - for 2-digit year, century is guessed according to POSIX rules for - ``%y`` strptime format. A deprecation warning is issued when century - information is guessed in this way. - - - for 3-digit or negative year, a :exc:`ValueError` exception is raised. - - If ``accept2dyear`` is false (set by the program or as a result of a - non-empty value assigned to ``PYTHONY2K`` environment variable) all year - values are interpreted as given. - .. index:: single: UTC single: Coordinated Universal Time @@ -96,6 +77,11 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order. See :class:`struct_time` for a description of these objects. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The :class:`struct_time` type was extended to provide the :attr:`tm_gmtoff` + and :attr:`tm_zone` attributes when platform supports corresponding + ``struct tm`` members. + * Use the following functions to convert between time representations: +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ @@ -117,24 +103,6 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order. The module defines the following functions and data items: - -.. data:: accept2dyear - - Boolean value indicating whether two-digit year values will be - mapped to 1969--2068 range by :func:`asctime`, :func:`mktime`, and - :func:`strftime` functions. This is true by default, but will be - set to false if the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHONY2K` has - been set to a non-empty string. It may also be modified at run - time. - - .. deprecated:: 3.2 - Mapping of 2-digit year values by :func:`asctime`, - :func:`mktime`, and :func:`strftime` functions to 1969--2068 - range is deprecated. Programs that need to process 2-digit - years should use ``%y`` code available in :func:`strptime` - function or convert 2-digit year values to 4-digit themselves. - - .. data:: altzone The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. @@ -152,7 +120,8 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: .. note:: - Unlike the C function of the same name, there is no trailing newline. + Unlike the C function of the same name, :func:`asctime` does not add a + trailing newline. .. function:: clock() @@ -172,6 +141,97 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: :c:func:`QueryPerformanceCounter`. The resolution is typically better than one microsecond. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + The behaviour of this function depends on the platform: use + :func:`perf_counter` or :func:`process_time` instead, depending on your + requirements, to have a well defined behaviour. + + +.. function:: clock_getres(clk_id) + + Return the resolution (precision) of the specified clock *clk_id*. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: clock_gettime(clk_id) + + Return the time of the specified clock *clk_id*. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: clock_settime(clk_id, time) + + Set the time of the specified clock *clk_id*. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_HIGHRES + + The Solaris OS has a CLOCK_HIGHRES timer that attempts to use an optimal + hardware source, and may give close to nanosecond resolution. CLOCK_HIGHRES + is the nonadjustable, high-resolution clock. + + Availability: Solaris. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_MONOTONIC + + Clock that cannot be set and represents monotonic time since some unspecified + starting point. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW + + Similar to :data:`CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, but provides access to a raw + hardware-based time that is not subject to NTP adjustments. + + Availability: Linux 2.6.28 or later. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID + + High-resolution per-process timer from the CPU. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_REALTIME + + System-wide real-time clock. Setting this clock requires appropriate + privileges. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. data:: CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID + + Thread-specific CPU-time clock. + + Availability: Unix. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. function:: ctime([secs]) @@ -186,6 +246,31 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: Nonzero if a DST timezone is defined. +.. function:: get_clock_info(name) + + Get information on the specified clock as a namespace object. + Supported clock names and the corresponding functions to read their value + are: + + * ``'clock'``: :func:`time.clock` + * ``'monotonic'``: :func:`time.monotonic` + * ``'perf_counter'``: :func:`time.perf_counter` + * ``'process_time'``: :func:`time.process_time` + * ``'time'``: :func:`time.time` + + The result has the following attributes: + + - *adjustable*: ``True`` if the clock can be changed automatically (e.g. by + a NTP daemon) or manually by the system administrator, ``False`` otherwise + - *implementation*: The name of the underlying C function used to get + the clock value + - *monotonic*: ``True`` if the clock cannot go backward, + ``False`` otherwise + - *resolution*: The resolution of the clock in seconds (:class:`float`) + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. function:: gmtime([secs]) Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a :class:`struct_time` in @@ -215,6 +300,47 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: The earliest date for which it can generate a time is platform-dependent. +.. function:: monotonic() + + Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a monotonic clock, i.e. a clock + that cannot go backwards. The clock is not affected by system clock updates. + The reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the + difference between the results of consecutive calls is valid. + + On Windows versions older than Vista, :func:`monotonic` detects + :c:func:`GetTickCount` integer overflow (32 bits, roll-over after 49.7 days). + It increases an internal epoch (reference time by) 2\ :sup:`32` each time + that an overflow is detected. The epoch is stored in the process-local state + and so the value of :func:`monotonic` may be different in two Python + processes running for more than 49 days. On more recent versions of Windows + and on other operating systems, :func:`monotonic` is system-wide. + + Availability: Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: perf_counter() + + Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter, i.e. a + clock with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration. It + does include time elapsed during sleep and is system-wide. The reference + point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between + the results of consecutive calls is valid. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. function:: process_time() + + Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user + CPU time of the current process. It does not include time elapsed during + sleep. It is process-wide by definition. The reference point of the + returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results + of consecutive calls is valid. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. function:: sleep(secs) Suspend execution for the given number of seconds. The argument may be a @@ -308,9 +434,15 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: | ``%y`` | Year without century as a decimal number | | | | [00,99]. | | +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+ - | ``%Y`` | Year with century as a decimal number. | \(4) | + | ``%Y`` | Year with century as a decimal number. | | | | | | +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+ + | ``%z`` | Time zone offset indicating a positive or | | + | | negative time difference from UTC/GMT of the | | + | | form +HHMM or -HHMM, where H represents decimal| | + | | hour digits and M represents decimal minute | | + | | digits [-23:59, +23:59]. | | + +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+ | ``%Z`` | Time zone name (no characters if no time zone | | | | exists). | | +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+ @@ -332,12 +464,6 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: When used with the :func:`strptime` function, ``%U`` and ``%W`` are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the year are specified. - (4) - Produces different results depending on the value of - ``time.accept2dyear`` variable. See :ref:`Year 2000 (Y2K) - issues <time-y2kissues>` for details. - - Here is an example, a format for dates compatible with that specified in the :rfc:`2822` Internet email standard. [#]_ :: @@ -416,10 +542,13 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ | 8 | :attr:`tm_isdst` | 0, 1 or -1; see below | +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ + | N/A | :attr:`tm_zone` | abbreviation of timezone name | + +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ + | N/A | :attr:`tm_gmtoff` | offset east of UTC in seconds | + +-------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ Note that unlike the C structure, the month value is a range of [1, 12], not - [0, 11]. A year value will be handled as described under :ref:`Year 2000 - (Y2K) issues <time-y2kissues>` above. A ``-1`` argument as the daylight + [0, 11]. A ``-1`` argument as the daylight savings flag, passed to :func:`mktime` will usually result in the correct daylight savings state to be filled in. @@ -427,6 +556,9 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: :class:`struct_time`, or having elements of the wrong type, a :exc:`TypeError` is raised. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :attr:`tm_gmtoff` and :attr:`tm_zone` attributes are avaliable on platforms + with C library supporting the corresponding fields in ``struct tm``. .. function:: time() @@ -437,7 +569,6 @@ The module defines the following functions and data items: lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls. - .. data:: timezone The offset of the local (non-DST) timezone, in seconds west of UTC (negative in diff --git a/Doc/library/timeit.rst b/Doc/library/timeit.rst index cd2d205..c41e59d 100644 --- a/Doc/library/timeit.rst +++ b/Doc/library/timeit.rst @@ -104,13 +104,7 @@ The module also defines three convenience functions: .. function:: default_timer() - Define a default timer, in a platform specific manner. On Windows, - :func:`time.clock` has microsecond granularity but :func:`time.time`'s - granularity is 1/60th of a second; on Unix, :func:`time.clock` has 1/100th of - a second granularity and :func:`time.time` is much more precise. On either - platform, :func:`default_timer` measures wall clock time, not the CPU - time. This means that other processes running on the same computer may - interfere with the timing. + The default timer, which is always :func:`time.perf_counter`. .. function:: repeat(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, repeat=3, number=1000000) @@ -149,13 +143,20 @@ Where the following options are understood: statement to be executed once initially (default ``pass``) +.. cmdoption:: -p, --process + + measure process time, not wallclock time, using :func:`time.process_time` + instead of :func:`time.perf_counter`, which is the default + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + .. cmdoption:: -t, --time - use :func:`time.time` (default on all platforms but Windows) + use :func:`time.time` (deprecated) .. cmdoption:: -c, --clock - use :func:`time.clock` (default on Windows) + use :func:`time.clock` (deprecated) .. cmdoption:: -v, --verbose @@ -173,12 +174,11 @@ similarly. If :option:`-n` is not given, a suitable number of loops is calculated by trying successive powers of 10 until the total time is at least 0.2 seconds. -:func:`default_timer` measurations can be affected by other programs running on -the same machine, so -the best thing to do when accurate timing is necessary is to repeat -the timing a few times and use the best time. The :option:`-r` option is good -for this; the default of 3 repetitions is probably enough in most cases. On -Unix, you can use :func:`time.clock` to measure CPU time. +:func:`default_timer` measurements can be affected by other programs running on +the same machine, so the best thing to do when accurate timing is necessary is +to repeat the timing a few times and use the best time. The :option:`-r` +option is good for this; the default of 3 repetitions is probably enough in +most cases. You can use :func:`time.process_time` to measure CPU time. .. note:: diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.rst index f6e095a..83a5375 100644 --- a/Doc/library/tkinter.rst +++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.rst @@ -194,35 +194,30 @@ A Simple Hello World Program :: - from tkinter import * - - class Application(Frame): - def say_hi(self): - print("hi there, everyone!") - - def createWidgets(self): - self.QUIT = Button(self) - self.QUIT["text"] = "QUIT" - self.QUIT["fg"] = "red" - self.QUIT["command"] = self.quit + import tkinter as tk - self.QUIT.pack({"side": "left"}) + class Application(tk.Frame): + def __init__(self, master=None): + tk.Frame.__init__(self, master) + self.pack() + self.createWidgets() - self.hi_there = Button(self) - self.hi_there["text"] = "Hello", - self.hi_there["command"] = self.say_hi + def createWidgets(self): + self.hi_there = tk.Button(self) + self.hi_there["text"] = "Hello World\n(click me)" + self.hi_there["command"] = self.say_hi + self.hi_there.pack(side="top") - self.hi_there.pack({"side": "left"}) + self.QUIT = tk.Button(self, text="QUIT", fg="red", + command=root.destroy) + self.QUIT.pack(side="bottom") - def __init__(self, master=None): - Frame.__init__(self, master) - self.pack() - self.createWidgets() + def say_hi(self): + print("hi there, everyone!") - root = Tk() - app = Application(master=root) - app.mainloop() - root.destroy() + root = tk.Tk() + app = Application(master=root) + app.mainloop() A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk @@ -755,22 +750,32 @@ Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.) displayed. You can use these :mod:`tkinter` functions to access these special points in text widgets: - AtEnd() +.. function:: AtEnd() refers to the last position in the text - AtInsert() + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + +.. function:: AtInsert() refers to the point where the text cursor is - AtSelFirst() + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + +.. function:: AtSelFirst() indicates the beginning point of the selected text - AtSelLast() + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + +.. function:: AtSelLast() denotes the last point of the selected text and finally - At(x[, y]) + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + +.. function:: At(x[, y]) refers to the character at pixel location *x*, *y* (with *y* not used in the case of a text entry widget, which contains a single line of text). + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + Text widget indexes The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best described in the Tk man pages. @@ -818,4 +823,3 @@ some widget (e.g. labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a reference to the image. When the last Python reference to the image object is deleted, the image data is deleted as well, and Tk will display an empty box wherever the image was used. - diff --git a/Doc/library/tokenize.rst b/Doc/library/tokenize.rst index 70919ca..37d9f41 100644 --- a/Doc/library/tokenize.rst +++ b/Doc/library/tokenize.rst @@ -17,9 +17,11 @@ colorizers for on-screen displays. To simplify token stream handling, all :ref:`operators` and :ref:`delimiters` tokens are returned using the generic :data:`token.OP` token type. The exact -type can be determined by checking the token ``string`` field on the -:term:`named tuple` returned from :func:`tokenize.tokenize` for the character -sequence that identifies a specific operator token. +type can be determined by checking the ``exact_type`` property on the +:term:`named tuple` returned from :func:`tokenize.tokenize`. + +Tokenizing Input +---------------- The primary entry point is a :term:`generator`: @@ -39,9 +41,17 @@ The primary entry point is a :term:`generator`: returned as a :term:`named tuple` with the field names: ``type string start end line``. + The returned :term:`named tuple` has a additional property named + ``exact_type`` that contains the exact operator type for + :data:`token.OP` tokens. For all other token types ``exact_type`` + equals the named tuple ``type`` field. + .. versionchanged:: 3.1 Added support for named tuples. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added support for ``exact_type``. + :func:`tokenize` determines the source encoding of the file by looking for a UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to :pep:`263`. @@ -122,6 +132,38 @@ function it uses to do this is available: .. versionadded:: 3.2 +.. _tokenize-cli: + +Command-Line Usage +------------------ + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The :mod:`tokenize` module can be executed as a script from the command line. +It is as simple as: + +.. code-block:: sh + + python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py] + +The following options are accepted: + +.. program:: tokenize + +.. cmdoption:: -h, --help + + show this help message and exit + +.. cmdoption:: -e, --exact + + display token names using the exact type + +If :file:`filename.py` is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout. +Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin. + +Examples +------------------ + Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal objects:: @@ -164,3 +206,63 @@ objects:: result.append((toknum, tokval)) return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8') +Example of tokenizing from the command line. The script:: + + def say_hello(): + print("Hello, World!") + + say_hello() + +will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the range +of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the second column is +the name of the token, and the final column is the value of the token (if any) + +.. code-block:: sh + + $ python -m tokenize hello.py + 0,0-0,0: ENCODING 'utf-8' + 1,0-1,3: NAME 'def' + 1,4-1,13: NAME 'say_hello' + 1,13-1,14: OP '(' + 1,14-1,15: OP ')' + 1,15-1,16: OP ':' + 1,16-1,17: NEWLINE '\n' + 2,0-2,4: INDENT ' ' + 2,4-2,9: NAME 'print' + 2,9-2,10: OP '(' + 2,10-2,25: STRING '"Hello, World!"' + 2,25-2,26: OP ')' + 2,26-2,27: NEWLINE '\n' + 3,0-3,1: NL '\n' + 4,0-4,0: DEDENT '' + 4,0-4,9: NAME 'say_hello' + 4,9-4,10: OP '(' + 4,10-4,11: OP ')' + 4,11-4,12: NEWLINE '\n' + 5,0-5,0: ENDMARKER '' + +The exact token type names can be displayed using the ``-e`` option: + +.. code-block:: sh + + $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py + 0,0-0,0: ENCODING 'utf-8' + 1,0-1,3: NAME 'def' + 1,4-1,13: NAME 'say_hello' + 1,13-1,14: LPAR '(' + 1,14-1,15: RPAR ')' + 1,15-1,16: COLON ':' + 1,16-1,17: NEWLINE '\n' + 2,0-2,4: INDENT ' ' + 2,4-2,9: NAME 'print' + 2,9-2,10: LPAR '(' + 2,10-2,25: STRING '"Hello, World!"' + 2,25-2,26: RPAR ')' + 2,26-2,27: NEWLINE '\n' + 3,0-3,1: NL '\n' + 4,0-4,0: DEDENT '' + 4,0-4,9: NAME 'say_hello' + 4,9-4,10: LPAR '(' + 4,10-4,11: RPAR ')' + 4,11-4,12: NEWLINE '\n' + 5,0-5,0: ENDMARKER '' diff --git a/Doc/library/types.rst b/Doc/library/types.rst index d4a76b6..695480f 100644 --- a/Doc/library/types.rst +++ b/Doc/library/types.rst @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ -:mod:`types` --- Names for built-in types -========================================= +:mod:`types` --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types +=================================================================== .. module:: types :synopsis: Names for built-in types. @@ -8,20 +8,77 @@ -------------- -This module defines names for some object types that are used by the standard +This module defines utility function to assist in dynamic creation of +new types. + +It also defines names for some object types that are used by the standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like :class:`int` or -:class:`str` are. Also, it does not include some of the types that arise -transparently during processing such as the ``listiterator`` type. +:class:`str` are. + + +Dynamic Type Creation +--------------------- + +.. function:: new_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None) + + Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass. + + The first three arguments are the components that make up a class + definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the + keyword arguments (such as ``metaclass``). + + The *exec_body* argument is a callback that is used to populate the + freshly created class namespace. It should accept the class namespace + as its sole argument and update the namespace directly with the class + contents. If no callback is provided, it has the same effect as passing + in ``lambda ns: ns``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. function:: prepare_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None) + + Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class namespace. + + The arguments are the components that make up a class definition header: + the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword arguments + (such as ``metaclass``). + + The return value is a 3-tuple: ``metaclass, namespace, kwds`` + + *metaclass* is the appropriate metaclass, *namespace* is the + prepared class namespace and *kwds* is an updated copy of the passed + in *kwds* argument with any ``'metaclass'`` entry removed. If no *kwds* + argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict. -Typical use is for :func:`isinstance` or :func:`issubclass` checks. + .. versionadded:: 3.3 -The module defines the following names: +.. seealso:: + + :ref:`metaclasses` + Full details of the class creation process supported by these functions + + :pep:`3115` - Metaclasses in Python 3000 + Introduced the ``__prepare__`` namespace hook + + +Standard Interpreter Types +-------------------------- + +This module provides names for many of the types that are required to +implement a Python interpreter. It deliberately avoids including some of +the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the +``listiterator`` type. + +Typical use of these names is for :func:`isinstance` or +:func:`issubclass` checks. + +Standard names are defined for the following types: .. data:: FunctionType LambdaType - The type of user-defined functions and functions created by :keyword:`lambda` - expressions. + The type of user-defined functions and functions created by + :keyword:`lambda` expressions. .. data:: GeneratorType @@ -85,3 +142,79 @@ The module defines the following names: In other implementations of Python, this type may be identical to ``GetSetDescriptorType``. + +.. class:: MappingProxyType(mapping) + + Read-only proxy of a mapping. It provides a dynamic view on the mapping's + entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the view reflects these + changes. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. describe:: key in proxy + + Return ``True`` if the underlying mapping has a key *key*, else + ``False``. + + .. describe:: proxy[key] + + Return the item of the underlying mapping with key *key*. Raises a + :exc:`KeyError` if *key* is not in the underlying mapping. + + .. describe:: iter(proxy) + + Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping. This is a + shortcut for ``iter(proxy.keys())``. + + .. describe:: len(proxy) + + Return the number of items in the underlying mapping. + + .. method:: copy() + + Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping. + + .. method:: get(key[, default]) + + Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the underlying mapping, else + *default*. If *default* is not given, it defaults to ``None``, so that + this method never raises a :exc:`KeyError`. + + .. method:: items() + + Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items (``(key, value)`` + pairs). + + .. method:: keys() + + Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys. + + .. method:: values() + + Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values. + + +.. class:: SimpleNamespace + + A simple :class:`object` subclass that provides attribute access to its + namespace, as well as a meaningful repr. + + Unlike :class:`object`, with ``SimpleNamespace`` you can add and remove + attributes. If a ``SimpleNamespace`` object is initialized with keyword + arguments, those are directly added to the underlying namespace. + + The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:: + + class SimpleNamespace: + def __init__(self, **kwargs): + self.__dict__.update(kwargs) + def __repr__(self): + keys = sorted(self.__dict__) + items = ("{}={!r}".format(k, self.__dict__[k]) for k in keys) + return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items)) + + ``SimpleNamespace`` may be useful as a replacement for ``class NS: pass``. + However, for a structured record type use :func:`~collections.namedtuple` + instead. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 diff --git a/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst b/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst index 3b1bbe0..3787c36 100644 --- a/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst +++ b/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst @@ -15,8 +15,8 @@ This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD) which defines character properties for all Unicode characters. The data contained in -this database is compiled from the `UCD version 6.0.0 -<http://www.unicode.org/Public/6.0.0/ucd>`_. +this database is compiled from the `UCD version 6.1.0 +<http://www.unicode.org/Public/6.1.0/ucd>`_. The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode Standard Annex #44, `"Unicode Character Database" @@ -29,6 +29,9 @@ following functions: Look up character by name. If a character with the given name is found, return the corresponding character. If not found, :exc:`KeyError` is raised. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for name aliases [#]_ and named sequences [#]_ has been added. + .. function:: name(chr[, default]) @@ -160,3 +163,9 @@ Examples: >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber 'AN' + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/6.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt + +.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/6.1.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e1e88a --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst @@ -0,0 +1,1246 @@ +:mod:`unittest.mock` --- getting started +======================================== + +.. moduleauthor:: Michael Foord <michael@python.org> +.. currentmodule:: unittest.mock + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + + +.. _getting-started: + +Using Mock +---------- + +Mock Patching Methods +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +Common uses for :class:`Mock` objects include: + +* Patching methods +* Recording method calls on objects + +You might want to replace a method on an object to check that +it is called with the correct arguments by another part of the system: + + >>> real = SomeClass() + >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method') + >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value') + <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'> + +Once our mock has been used (`real.method` in this example) it has methods +and attributes that allow you to make assertions about how it has been used. + +.. note:: + + In most of these examples the :class:`Mock` and :class:`MagicMock` classes + are interchangeable. As the `MagicMock` is the more capable class it makes + a sensible one to use by default. + +Once the mock has been called its :attr:`~Mock.called` attribute is set to +`True`. More importantly we can use the :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` or +:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with` method to check that it was called with +the correct arguments. + +This example tests that calling `ProductionClass().method` results in a call to +the `something` method: + + >>> class ProductionClass(object): + ... def method(self): + ... self.something(1, 2, 3) + ... def something(self, a, b, c): + ... pass + ... + >>> real = ProductionClass() + >>> real.something = MagicMock() + >>> real.method() + >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) + + + +Mock for Method Calls on an Object +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check that it +was called correctly. Another common use case is to pass an object into a +method (or some part of the system under test) and then check that it is used +in the correct way. + +The simple `ProductionClass` below has a `closer` method. If it is called with +an object then it calls `close` on it. + + >>> class ProductionClass(object): + ... def closer(self, something): + ... something.close() + ... + +So to test it we need to pass in an object with a `close` method and check +that it was called correctly. + + >>> real = ProductionClass() + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> real.closer(mock) + >>> mock.close.assert_called_with() + +We don't have to do any work to provide the 'close' method on our mock. +Accessing close creates it. So, if 'close' hasn't already been called then +accessing it in the test will create it, but :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` +will raise a failure exception. + + +Mocking Classes +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under test. +When you patch a class, then that class is replaced with a mock. Instances +are created by *calling the class*. This means you access the "mock instance" +by looking at the return value of the mocked class. + +In the example below we have a function `some_function` that instantiates `Foo` +and calls a method on it. The call to `patch` replaces the class `Foo` with a +mock. The `Foo` instance is the result of calling the mock, so it is configured +by modifying the mock :attr:`~Mock.return_value`. + + >>> def some_function(): + ... instance = module.Foo() + ... return instance.method() + ... + >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock: + ... instance = mock.return_value + ... instance.method.return_value = 'the result' + ... result = some_function() + ... assert result == 'the result' + + +Naming your mocks +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +It can be useful to give your mocks a name. The name is shown in the repr of +the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test failure messages. The +name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock: + + >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo') + >>> mock + <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'> + >>> mock.method + <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'> + + +Tracking all Calls +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The +:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` attribute records all calls +to child attributes of the mock - and also to their children. + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock.method() + <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'> + >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53) + <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'> + >>> mock.mock_calls + [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)] + +If you make an assertion about `mock_calls` and any unexpected methods +have been called, then the assertion will fail. This is useful because as well +as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are also checking +that they were made in the right order and with no additional calls: + +You use the :data:`call` object to construct lists for comparing with +`mock_calls`: + + >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)] + >>> mock.mock_calls == expected + True + + +Setting Return Values and Attributes +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.return_value = 3 + >>> mock() + 3 + +Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.method.return_value = 3 + >>> mock.method() + 3 + +The return value can also be set in the constructor: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) + >>> mock() + 3 + +If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.x = 3 + >>> mock.x + 3 + +Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example +`mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")`. If we wanted this call to +return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested call. + +We can use :data:`call` to construct the set of calls in a "chained call" like +this for easy assertion afterwards: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value + >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo'] + >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1") + ['foo'] + >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list() + >>> mock.mock_calls + [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')] + >>> mock.mock_calls == expected + True + +It is the call to `.call_list()` that turns our call object into a list of +calls representing the chained calls. + + +Raising exceptions with mocks +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +A useful attribute is :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`. If you set this to an +exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the mock +is called. + + >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!')) + >>> mock() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + Exception: Boom! + + +Side effect functions and iterables +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +`side_effect` can also be set to a function or an iterable. The use case for +`side_effect` as an iterable is where your mock is going to be called several +times, and you want each call to return a different value. When you set +`side_effect` to an iterable every call to the mock returns the next value +from the iterable: + + >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6]) + >>> mock() + 4 + >>> mock() + 5 + >>> mock() + 6 + + +For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values +depending on what the mock is called with, `side_effect` can be a function. +The function will be called with the same arguments as the mock. Whatever the +function returns is what the call returns: + + >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2} + >>> def side_effect(*args): + ... return vals[args] + ... + >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect) + >>> mock(1, 2) + 1 + >>> mock(2, 3) + 2 + + +Creating a Mock from an Existing Object +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the +implementation of your mocks rather than your real code. Suppose you have a +class that implements `some_method`. In a test for another class, you +provide a mock of this object that *also* provides `some_method`. If later +you refactor the first class, so that it no longer has `some_method` - then +your tests will continue to pass even though your code is now broken! + +`Mock` allows you to provide an object as a specification for the mock, +using the `spec` keyword argument. Accessing methods / attributes on the +mock that don't exist on your specification object will immediately raise an +attribute error. If you change the implementation of your specification, then +tests that use that class will start failing immediately without you having to +instantiate the class in those tests. + + >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass) + >>> mock.old_method() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: object has no attribute 'old_method' + +If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting +of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use +`spec_set` instead of `spec`. + + + +Patch Decorators +---------------- + +.. note:: + + With `patch` it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they + are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide + read :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`. + + +A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module attribute, +for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a module to test that it +is instantiated. Modules and classes are effectively global, so patching on +them has to be undone after the test or the patch will persist into other +tests and cause hard to diagnose problems. + +mock provides three convenient decorators for this: `patch`, `patch.object` and +`patch.dict`. `patch` takes a single string, of the form +`package.module.Class.attribute` to specify the attribute you are patching. It +also optionally takes a value that you want the attribute (or class or +whatever) to be replaced with. 'patch.object' takes an object and the name of +the attribute you would like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it +with. + +`patch.object`: + + >>> original = SomeClass.attribute + >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute) + ... def test(): + ... assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute + ... + >>> test() + >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original + + >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute) + ... def test(): + ... from package.module import attribute + ... assert attribute is sentinel.attribute + ... + >>> test() + +If you are patching a module (including `__builtin__`) then use `patch` +instead of `patch.object`: + + >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value = sentinel.file_handle) + >>> with patch('__builtin__.open', mock): + ... handle = open('filename', 'r') + ... + >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r') + >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned" + +The module name can be 'dotted', in the form `package.module` if needed: + + >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute) + ... def test(): + ... from package.module import ClassName + ... assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute + ... + >>> test() + +A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves: + + >>> class MyTest(unittest2.TestCase): + ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute) + ... def test_something(self): + ... self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute) + ... + >>> original = SomeClass.attribute + >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() + >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original + +If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use `patch` with only one argument +(or `patch.object` with two arguments). The mock will be created for you and +passed into the test function / method: + + >>> class MyTest(unittest2.TestCase): + ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method') + ... def test_something(self, mock_method): + ... SomeClass.static_method() + ... mock_method.assert_called_with() + ... + >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() + +You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern: + + >>> class MyTest(unittest2.TestCase): + ... @patch('package.module.ClassName1') + ... @patch('package.module.ClassName2') + ... def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1): + ... self.assertTrue(package.module.ClassName1 is MockClass1) + ... self.assertTrue(package.module.ClassName2 is MockClass2) + ... + >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() + +When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated +function in the same order they applied (the normal *python* order that +decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example +above the mock for `test_module.ClassName2` is passed in first. + +There is also :func:`patch.dict` for setting values in a dictionary just +during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test +ends: + + >>> foo = {'key': 'value'} + >>> original = foo.copy() + >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True): + ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} + ... + >>> assert foo == original + +`patch`, `patch.object` and `patch.dict` can all be used as context managers. + +Where you use `patch` to create a mock for you, you can get a reference to the +mock using the "as" form of the with statement: + + >>> class ProductionClass(object): + ... def method(self): + ... pass + ... + >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method: + ... mock_method.return_value = None + ... real = ProductionClass() + ... real.method(1, 2, 3) + ... + >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3) + + +As an alternative `patch`, `patch.object` and `patch.dict` can be used as +class decorators. When used in this way it is the same as applying the +decorator indvidually to every method whose name starts with "test". + + +.. _further-examples: + +Further Examples +================ + + +Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios. + + +Mocking chained calls +--------------------- + +Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you +understand the :attr:`~Mock.return_value` attribute. When a mock is called for +the first time, or you fetch its `return_value` before it has been called, a +new `Mock` is created. + +This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a mocked +object has been used by interrogating the `return_value` mock: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3) + <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'> + >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3) + +From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions about +chained calls. Of course another alternative is writing your code in a more +testable way in the first place... + +So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this: + + >>> class Something(object): + ... def __init__(self): + ... self.backend = BackendProvider() + ... def method(self): + ... response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call() + ... # more code + +Assuming that `BackendProvider` is already well tested, how do we test +`method()`? Specifically, we want to test that the code section `# more +code` uses the response object in the correct way. + +As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey patch +the `backend` attribute on a `Something` instance. In this particular case +we are only interested in the return value from the final call to +`start_call` so we don't have much configuration to do. Let's assume the +object it returns is 'file-like', so we'll ensure that our response object +uses the builtin `file` as its `spec`. + +To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a mock +response object for it. To set the response as the return value for that final +`start_call` we could do this: + + `mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response`. + +We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the :meth:`~Mock.configure_mock` +method to directly set the return value for us: + + >>> something = Something() + >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=file) + >>> mock_backend = Mock() + >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response} + >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config) + +With these we monkey patch the "mock backend" in place and can make the real +call: + + >>> something.backend = mock_backend + >>> something.method() + +Using :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` we can check the chained call with a single +assert. A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so there will be +several entries in `mock_calls`. We can use :meth:`call.call_list` to create +this list of calls for us: + + >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call() + >>> call_list = chained.call_list() + >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list + + +Partial mocking +--------------- + +In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to `datetime.date.today() +<http://docs.python.org/library/datetime.html#datetime.date.today>`_ to return +a known date, but I didn't want to prevent the code under test from +creating new date objects. Unfortunately `datetime.date` is written in C, and +so I couldn't just monkey-patch out the static `date.today` method. + +I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping the date +class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor to the real +class (and returning real instances). + +The :func:`patch decorator <patch>` is used here to +mock out the `date` class in the module under test. The :attr:`side_effect` +attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns +a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be +constructed and returned by `side_effect`. + + >>> from datetime import date + >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date: + ... mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8) + ... mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw) + ... + ... assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8) + ... assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8) + ... + +Note that we don't patch `datetime.date` globally, we patch `date` in the +module that *uses* it. See :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`. + +When `date.today()` is called a known date is returned, but calls to the +`date(...)` constructor still return normal dates. Without this you can find +yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the same +algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing anti-pattern. + +Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the `mock_date` attributes +(`call_count` and friends) which may also be useful for your tests. + +An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes, +is discussed in `this blog entry +<http://williamjohnbert.com/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/>`_. + + +Mocking a Generator Method +-------------------------- + +A Python generator is a function or method that uses the `yield statement +<http://docs.python.org/reference/simple_stmts.html#the-yield-statement>`_ to +return a series of values when iterated over [#]_. + +A generator method / function is called to return the generator object. It is +the generator object that is then iterated over. The protocol method for +iteration is `__iter__ +<http://docs.python.org/library/stdtypes.html#container.__iter__>`_, so we can +mock this using a `MagicMock`. + +Here's an example class with an "iter" method implemented as a generator: + + >>> class Foo(object): + ... def iter(self): + ... for i in [1, 2, 3]: + ... yield i + ... + >>> foo = Foo() + >>> list(foo.iter()) + [1, 2, 3] + + +How would we mock this class, and in particular its "iter" method? + +To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the call to +`list`), we need to configure the object returned by the call to `foo.iter()`. + + >>> mock_foo = MagicMock() + >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3]) + >>> list(mock_foo.iter()) + [1, 2, 3] + +.. [#] There are also generator expressions and more `advanced uses + <http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html>`_ of generators, but we aren't + concerned about them here. A very good introduction to generators and how + powerful they are is: `Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers + <http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/>`_. + + +Applying the same patch to every test method +-------------------------------------------- + +If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the obvious way +is to apply the patch decorators to every method. This can feel like unnecessary +repetition. For Python 2.6 or more recent you can use `patch` (in all its +various forms) as a class decorator. This applies the patches to all test +methods on the class. A test method is identified by methods whose names start +with `test`: + + >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass') + ... class MyTest(TestCase): + ... + ... def test_one(self, MockSomeClass): + ... self.assertTrue(mymodule.SomeClass is MockSomeClass) + ... + ... def test_two(self, MockSomeClass): + ... self.assertTrue(mymodule.SomeClass is MockSomeClass) + ... + ... def not_a_test(self): + ... return 'something' + ... + >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one() + >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two() + >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test() + 'something' + +An alternative way of managing patches is to use the :ref:`start-and-stop`. +These allow you to move the patching into your `setUp` and `tearDown` methods. + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... def setUp(self): + ... self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo') + ... self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start() + ... + ... def test_foo(self): + ... self.assertTrue(mymodule.foo is self.mock_foo) + ... + ... def tearDown(self): + ... self.patcher.stop() + ... + >>> MyTest('test_foo').run() + +If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by +calling `stop`. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an +exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called. +:meth:`unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` makes this easier: + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... def setUp(self): + ... patcher = patch('mymodule.foo') + ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) + ... self.mock_foo = patcher.start() + ... + ... def test_foo(self): + ... self.assertTrue(mymodule.foo is self.mock_foo) + ... + >>> MyTest('test_foo').run() + + +Mocking Unbound Methods +----------------------- + +Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an *unbound method* (patching the +method on the class rather than on the instance). I needed self to be passed +in as the first argument because I want to make asserts about which objects +were calling this particular method. The issue is that you can't patch with a +mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't +become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get +self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real +function instead. The :func:`patch` decorator makes it so simple to +patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a +nuisance. + +If you pass `autospec=True` to patch then it does the patching with a +*real* function object. This function object has the same signature as the one +it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your +mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is +that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked +function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance. +It will have `self` passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what I +wanted: + + >>> class Foo(object): + ... def foo(self): + ... pass + ... + >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo: + ... mock_foo.return_value = 'foo' + ... foo = Foo() + ... foo.foo() + ... + 'foo' + >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo) + +If we don't use `autospec=True` then the unbound method is patched out +with a Mock instance instead, and isn't called with `self`. + + +Checking multiple calls with mock +--------------------------------- + +mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects are used. + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None + >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs') + >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs') + +If your mock is only being called once you can use the +:meth:`assert_called_once_with` method that also asserts that the +:attr:`call_count` is one. + + >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs') + >>> mock.foo_bar() + >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs') + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times. + +Both `assert_called_with` and `assert_called_once_with` make assertions about +the *most recent* call. If your mock is going to be called several times, and +you want to make assertions about *all* those calls you can use +:attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock(4, 5, 6) + >>> mock() + >>> mock.call_args_list + [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()] + +The :data:`call` helper makes it easy to make assertions about these calls. You +can build up a list of expected calls and compare it to `call_args_list`. This +looks remarkably similar to the repr of the `call_args_list`: + + >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()] + >>> mock.call_args_list == expected + True + + +Coping with mutable arguments +----------------------------- + +Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called with +mutable arguments. `call_args` and `call_args_list` store *references* to the +arguments. If the arguments are mutated by the code under test then you can no +longer make assertions about what the values were when the mock was called. + +Here's some example code that shows the problem. Imagine the following functions +defined in 'mymodule':: + + def frob(val): + pass + + def grob(val): + "First frob and then clear val" + frob(val) + val.clear() + +When we try to test that `grob` calls `frob` with the correct argument look +what happens: + + >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob: + ... val = set([6]) + ... mymodule.grob(val) + ... + >>> val + set([]) + >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with(set([6])) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected: ((set([6]),), {}) + Called with: ((set([]),), {}) + +One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in. This +could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object identity +for equality. + +Here's one solution that uses the :attr:`side_effect` +functionality. If you provide a `side_effect` function for a mock then +`side_effect` will be called with the same args as the mock. This gives us an +opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later assertions. In this +example I'm using *another* mock to store the arguments so that I can use the +mock methods for doing the assertion. Again a helper function sets this up for +me. + + >>> from copy import deepcopy + >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT + >>> def copy_call_args(mock): + ... new_mock = Mock() + ... def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): + ... args = deepcopy(args) + ... kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs) + ... new_mock(*args, **kwargs) + ... return DEFAULT + ... mock.side_effect = side_effect + ... return new_mock + ... + >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob: + ... new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob) + ... val = set([6]) + ... mymodule.grob(val) + ... + >>> new_mock.assert_called_with(set([6])) + >>> new_mock.call_args + call(set([6])) + +`copy_call_args` is called with the mock that will be called. It returns a new +mock that we do the assertion on. The `side_effect` function makes a copy of +the args and calls our `new_mock` with the copy. + +.. note:: + + If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier way of + checking arguments at the point they are called. You can simply do the + checking inside a `side_effect` function. + + >>> def side_effect(arg): + ... assert arg == set([6]) + ... + >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect) + >>> mock(set([6])) + >>> mock(set()) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError + +An alternative approach is to create a subclass of `Mock` or `MagicMock` that +copies (using :func:`copy.deepcopy`) the arguments. +Here's an example implementation: + + >>> from copy import deepcopy + >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock): + ... def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs): + ... args = deepcopy(args) + ... kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs) + ... return super(CopyingMock, self).__call__(*args, **kwargs) + ... + >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None) + >>> arg = set() + >>> c(arg) + >>> arg.add(1) + >>> c.assert_called_with(set()) + >>> c.assert_called_with(arg) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected call: mock(set([1])) + Actual call: mock(set([])) + >>> c.foo + <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> + +When you subclass `Mock` or `MagicMock` all dynamically created attributes, +and the `return_value` will use your subclass automatically. That means all +children of a `CopyingMock` will also have the type `CopyingMock`. + + +Nesting Patches +--------------- + +Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you +can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further to the +right: + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... + ... def test_foo(self): + ... with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo: + ... with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar: + ... with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam: + ... assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo + ... assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar + ... assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam + ... + >>> original = mymodule.Foo + >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo() + >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original + +With unittest `cleanup` functions and the :ref:`start-and-stop` we can +achieve the same effect without the nested indentation. A simple helper +method, `create_patch`, puts the patch in place and returns the created mock +for us: + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... + ... def create_patch(self, name): + ... patcher = patch(name) + ... thing = patcher.start() + ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) + ... return thing + ... + ... def test_foo(self): + ... mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo') + ... mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar') + ... mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam') + ... + ... assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo + ... assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar + ... assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam + ... + >>> original = mymodule.Foo + >>> MyTest('test_foo').run() + >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original + + +Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock +----------------------------------- + +You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording all +access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary. + +We can do this with :class:`MagicMock`, which will behave like a dictionary, +and using :data:`~Mock.side_effect` to delegate dictionary access to a real +underlying dictionary that is under our control. + +When the `__getitem__` and `__setitem__` methods of our `MagicMock` are called +(normal dictionary access) then `side_effect` is called with the key (and in +the case of `__setitem__` the value too). We can also control what is returned. + +After the `MagicMock` has been used we can use attributes like +:data:`~Mock.call_args_list` to assert about how the dictionary was used: + + >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} + >>> def getitem(name): + ... return my_dict[name] + ... + >>> def setitem(name, val): + ... my_dict[name] = val + ... + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem + >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem + +.. note:: + + An alternative to using `MagicMock` is to use `Mock` and *only* provide + the magic methods you specifically want: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem) + >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem) + + A *third* option is to use `MagicMock` but passing in `dict` as the `spec` + (or `spec_set`) argument so that the `MagicMock` created only has + dictionary magic methods available: + + >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict) + >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem + >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem + +With these side effect functions in place, the `mock` will behave like a normal +dictionary but recording the access. It even raises a `KeyError` if you try +to access a key that doesn't exist. + + >>> mock['a'] + 1 + >>> mock['c'] + 3 + >>> mock['d'] + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError: 'd' + >>> mock['b'] = 'fish' + >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs' + >>> mock['b'] + 'fish' + >>> mock['d'] + 'eggs' + +After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using the normal +mock methods and attributes: + + >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list + [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')] + >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list + [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')] + >>> my_dict + {'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 'fish', 'd': 'eggs'} + + +Mock subclasses and their attributes +------------------------------------ + +There are various reasons why you might want to subclass `Mock`. One reason +might be to add helper methods. Here's a silly example: + + >>> class MyMock(MagicMock): + ... def has_been_called(self): + ... return self.called + ... + >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None) + >>> mymock + <MyMock id='...'> + >>> mymock.has_been_called() + False + >>> mymock() + >>> mymock.has_been_called() + True + +The standard behaviour for `Mock` instances is that attributes and the return +value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed on. This ensures +that `Mock` attributes are `Mocks` and `MagicMock` attributes are `MagicMocks` +[#]_. So if you're subclassing to add helper methods then they'll also be +available on the attributes and return value mock of instances of your +subclass. + + >>> mymock.foo + <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> + >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called() + False + >>> mymock.foo() + <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'> + >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called() + True + +Sometimes this is inconvenient. For example, `one user +<https://code.google.com/p/mock/issues/detail?id=105>`_ is subclassing mock to +created a `Twisted adaptor +<http://twistedmatrix.com/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html>`_. +Having this applied to attributes too actually causes errors. + +`Mock` (in all its flavours) uses a method called `_get_child_mock` to create +these "sub-mocks" for attributes and return values. You can prevent your +subclass being used for attributes by overriding this method. The signature is +that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments (`**kwargs`) which are then passed +onto the mock constructor: + + >>> class Subclass(MagicMock): + ... def _get_child_mock(self, **kwargs): + ... return MagicMock(**kwargs) + ... + >>> mymock = Subclass() + >>> mymock.foo + <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> + >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass) + >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass) + >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass) + +.. [#] An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks. Attributes use the + callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn't have callable + methods. + + +Mocking imports with patch.dict +------------------------------- + +One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import inside +a function. These are harder to mock because they aren't using an object from +the module namespace that we can patch out. + +Generally local imports are to be avoided. They are sometimes done to prevent +circular dependencies, for which there is *usually* a much better way to solve +the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent "up front costs" by delaying the +import. This can also be solved in better ways than an unconditional local +import (store the module as a class or module attribute and only do the import +on first use). + +That aside there is a way to use `mock` to affect the results of an import. +Importing fetches an *object* from the `sys.modules` dictionary. Note that it +fetches an *object*, which need not be a module. Importing a module for the +first time results in a module object being put in `sys.modules`, so usually +when you import something you get a module back. This need not be the case +however. + +This means you can use :func:`patch.dict` to *temporarily* put a mock in place +in `sys.modules`. Any imports whilst this patch is active will fetch the mock. +When the patch is complete (the decorated function exits, the with statement +body is complete or `patcher.stop()` is called) then whatever was there +previously will be restored safely. + +Here's an example that mocks out the 'fooble' module. + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}): + ... import fooble + ... fooble.blob() + ... + <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'> + >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules + >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with() + +As you can see the `import fooble` succeeds, but on exit there is no 'fooble' +left in `sys.modules`. + +This also works for the `from module import name` form: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}): + ... from fooble import blob + ... blob.blip() + ... + <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'> + >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with() + +With slightly more work you can also mock package imports: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module} + >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules): + ... from package.module import fooble + ... fooble() + ... + <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'> + >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with() + + +Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions +-------------------------------------------------------- + +The :class:`Mock` class allows you to track the *order* of method calls on +your mock objects through the :attr:`~Mock.method_calls` attribute. This +doesn't allow you to track the order of calls between separate mock objects, +however we can use :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` to achieve the same effect. + +Because mocks track calls to child mocks in `mock_calls`, and accessing an +arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our separate +mocks from a parent one. Calls to those child mock will then all be recorded, +in order, in the `mock_calls` of the parent: + + >>> manager = Mock() + >>> mock_foo = manager.foo + >>> mock_bar = manager.bar + + >>> mock_foo.something() + <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'> + >>> mock_bar.other.thing() + <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'> + + >>> manager.mock_calls + [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()] + +We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing with +the `mock_calls` attribute on the manager mock: + + >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()] + >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls + True + +If `patch` is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can attach +them to a manager mock using the :meth:`~Mock.attach_mock` method. After +attaching calls will be recorded in `mock_calls` of the manager. + + >>> manager = MagicMock() + >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1: + ... with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2: + ... manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1') + ... manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2') + ... MockClass1().foo() + ... MockClass2().bar() + ... + <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'> + <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'> + >>> manager.mock_calls + [call.MockClass1(), + call.MockClass1().foo(), + call.MockClass2(), + call.MockClass2().bar()] + +If many calls have been made, but you're only interested in a particular +sequence of them then an alternative is to use the +:meth:`~Mock.assert_has_calls` method. This takes a list of calls (constructed +with the :data:`call` object). If that sequence of calls are in +:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` then the assert succeeds. + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> m().foo().bar().baz() + <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'> + >>> m.one().two().three() + <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'> + >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list() + >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls) + +Even though the chained call `m.one().two().three()` aren't the only calls that +have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds. + +Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only interested +in asserting about *some* of those calls. You may not even care about the +order. In this case you can pass `any_order=True` to `assert_has_calls`: + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50') + (...) + >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)] + >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True) + + +More complex argument matching +------------------------------ + +Using the same basic concept as :data:`ANY` we can implement matchers to do more +complex assertions on objects used as arguments to mocks. + +Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default +compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for user +defined classes). To use :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` we would need to pass +in the exact same object. If we are only interested in some of the attributes +of this object then we can create a matcher that will check these attributes +for us. + +You can see in this example how a 'standard' call to `assert_called_with` isn't +sufficient: + + >>> class Foo(object): + ... def __init__(self, a, b): + ... self.a, self.b = a, b + ... + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock(Foo(1, 2)) + >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2)) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>) + Actual call: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>) + +A comparison function for our `Foo` class might look something like this: + + >>> def compare(self, other): + ... if not type(self) == type(other): + ... return False + ... if self.a != other.a: + ... return False + ... if self.b != other.b: + ... return False + ... return True + ... + +And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its +equality operation would look something like this: + + >>> class Matcher(object): + ... def __init__(self, compare, some_obj): + ... self.compare = compare + ... self.some_obj = some_obj + ... def __eq__(self, other): + ... return self.compare(self.some_obj, other) + ... + +Putting all this together: + + >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2)) + >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo) + +The `Matcher` is instantiated with our compare function and the `Foo` object +we want to compare against. In `assert_called_with` the `Matcher` equality +method will be called, which compares the object the mock was called with +against the one we created our matcher with. If they match then +`assert_called_with` passes, and if they don't an `AssertionError` is raised: + + >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4)) + >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {}) + Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {}) + +With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the +`AssertionError` directly and provide a more useful failure message. + +As of version 1.5, the Python testing library `PyHamcrest +<http://pypi.python.org/pypi/PyHamcrest>`_ provides similar functionality, +that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher +(`hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality +<http://packages.python.org/PyHamcrest/integration.html#hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality>`_). diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bed698a --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst @@ -0,0 +1,2225 @@ +:mod:`unittest.mock` --- mock object library +============================================ + +.. module:: unittest.mock + :synopsis: Mock object library. +.. moduleauthor:: Michael Foord <michael@python.org> +.. currentmodule:: unittest.mock + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +:mod:`unittest.mock` is a library for testing in Python. It allows you to +replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make assertions +about how they have been used. + +`unittest.mock` provides a core :class:`Mock` class removing the need to +create a host of stubs throughout your test suite. After performing an +action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were used +and arguments they were called with. You can also specify return values and +set needed attributes in the normal way. + +Additionally, mock provides a :func:`patch` decorator that handles patching +module and class level attributes within the scope of a test, along with +:const:`sentinel` for creating unique objects. See the `quick guide`_ for +some examples of how to use :class:`Mock`, :class:`MagicMock` and +:func:`patch`. + +Mock is very easy to use and is designed for use with :mod:`unittest`. Mock +is based on the 'action -> assertion' pattern instead of `'record -> replay'` +used by many mocking frameworks. + +There is a backport of `unittest.mock` for earlier versions of Python, +available as `mock on PyPI <http://pypi.python.org/pypi/mock>`_. + +**Source code:** :source:`Lib/unittest/mock.py` + + +Quick Guide +----------- + +:class:`Mock` and :class:`MagicMock` objects create all attributes and +methods as you access them and store details of how they have been used. You +can configure them, to specify return values or limit what attributes are +available, and then make assertions about how they have been used: + + >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock + >>> thing = ProductionClass() + >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3) + >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value') + 3 + >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value') + +:attr:`side_effect` allows you to perform side effects, including raising an +exception when a mock is called: + + >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo')) + >>> mock() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError: 'foo' + + >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} + >>> def side_effect(arg): + ... return values[arg] + ... + >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect + >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c') + (1, 2, 3) + >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1] + >>> mock(), mock(), mock() + (5, 4, 3) + +Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour. For +example the `spec` argument configures the mock to take its specification +from another object. Attempting to access attributes or methods on the mock +that don't exist on the spec will fail with an `AttributeError`. + +The :func:`patch` decorator / context manager makes it easy to mock classes or +objects in a module under test. The object you specify will be replaced with a +mock (or other object) during the test and restored when the test ends: + + >>> from unittest.mock import patch + >>> @patch('module.ClassName2') + ... @patch('module.ClassName1') + ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2): + ... module.ClassName1() + ... module.ClassName2() + ... assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1 + ... assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2 + ... assert MockClass1.called + ... assert MockClass2.called + ... + >>> test() + +.. note:: + + When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated + function in the same order they applied (the normal *python* order that + decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example + above the mock for `module.ClassName1` is passed in first. + + With `patch` it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they + are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide + read :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`. + +As well as a decorator `patch` can be used as a context manager in a with +statement: + + >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method: + ... thing = ProductionClass() + ... thing.method(1, 2, 3) + ... + >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) + + +There is also :func:`patch.dict` for setting values in a dictionary just +during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test +ends: + + >>> foo = {'key': 'value'} + >>> original = foo.copy() + >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True): + ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} + ... + >>> assert foo == original + +Mock supports the mocking of Python :ref:`magic methods <magic-methods>`. The +easiest way of using magic methods is with the :class:`MagicMock` class. It +allows you to do things like: + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz' + >>> str(mock) + 'foobarbaz' + >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with() + +Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic methods +and they will be called appropriately. The `MagicMock` class is just a Mock +variant that has all of the magic methods pre-created for you (well, all the +useful ones anyway). + +The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary Mock +class: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee') + >>> str(mock) + 'wheeeeee' + +For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as the +objects they are replacing, you can use :ref:`auto-speccing <auto-speccing>`. +Auto-speccing can be done through the `autospec` argument to patch, or the +:func:`create_autospec` function. Auto-speccing creates mock objects that +have the same attributes and methods as the objects they are replacing, and +any functions and methods (including constructors) have the same call +signature as the real object. + +This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your production +code if they are used incorrectly: + + >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec + >>> def function(a, b, c): + ... pass + ... + >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy') + >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3) + 'fishy' + >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock_function('wrong arguments') + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + TypeError: <lambda>() takes exactly 3 arguments (1 given) + +`create_autospec` can also be used on classes, where it copies the signature of +the `__init__` method, and on callable objects where it copies the signature of +the `__call__` method. + + + +The Mock Class +-------------- + + +`Mock` is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use of stubs and +test doubles throughout your code. Mocks are callable and create attributes as +new mocks when you access them [#]_. Accessing the same attribute will always +return the same mock. Mocks record how you use them, allowing you to make +assertions about what your code has done to them. + +:class:`MagicMock` is a subclass of `Mock` with all the magic methods +pre-created and ready to use. There are also non-callable variants, useful +when you are mocking out objects that aren't callable: +:class:`NonCallableMock` and :class:`NonCallableMagicMock` + +The :func:`patch` decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace classes +in a particular module with a `Mock` object. By default `patch` will create +a `MagicMock` for you. You can specify an alternative class of `Mock` using +the `new_callable` argument to `patch`. + + +.. class:: Mock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs) + + Create a new `Mock` object. `Mock` takes several optional arguments + that specify the behaviour of the Mock object: + + * `spec`: This can be either a list of strings or an existing object (a + class or instance) that acts as the specification for the mock object. If + you pass in an object then a list of strings is formed by calling dir on + the object (excluding unsupported magic attributes and methods). + Accessing any attribute not in this list will raise an `AttributeError`. + + If `spec` is an object (rather than a list of strings) then + :attr:`__class__` returns the class of the spec object. This allows mocks + to pass `isinstance` tests. + + * `spec_set`: A stricter variant of `spec`. If used, attempting to *set* + or get an attribute on the mock that isn't on the object passed as + `spec_set` will raise an `AttributeError`. + + * `side_effect`: A function to be called whenever the Mock is called. See + the :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` attribute. Useful for raising exceptions or + dynamically changing return values. The function is called with the same + arguments as the mock, and unless it returns :data:`DEFAULT`, the return + value of this function is used as the return value. + + Alternatively `side_effect` can be an exception class or instance. In + this case the exception will be raised when the mock is called. + + If `side_effect` is an iterable then each call to the mock will return + the next value from the iterable. + + A `side_effect` can be cleared by setting it to `None`. + + * `return_value`: The value returned when the mock is called. By default + this is a new Mock (created on first access). See the + :attr:`return_value` attribute. + + * `wraps`: Item for the mock object to wrap. If `wraps` is not None then + calling the Mock will pass the call through to the wrapped object + (returning the real result). Attribute access on the mock will return a + Mock object that wraps the corresponding attribute of the wrapped + object (so attempting to access an attribute that doesn't exist will + raise an `AttributeError`). + + If the mock has an explicit `return_value` set then calls are not passed + to the wrapped object and the `return_value` is returned instead. + + * `name`: If the mock has a name then it will be used in the repr of the + mock. This can be useful for debugging. The name is propagated to child + mocks. + + Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be + used to set attributes on the mock after it is created. See the + :meth:`configure_mock` method for details. + + + .. method:: assert_called_with(*args, **kwargs) + + This method is a convenient way of asserting that calls are made in a + particular way: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow') + <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> + >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow') + + + .. method:: assert_called_once_with(*args, **kwargs) + + Assert that the mock was called exactly once and with the specified + arguments. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock('foo', bar='baz') + >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz') + >>> mock('foo', bar='baz') + >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz') + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times. + + + .. method:: assert_any_call(*args, **kwargs) + + assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments. + + The assert passes if the mock has *ever* been called, unlike + :meth:`assert_called_with` and :meth:`assert_called_once_with` that + only pass if the call is the most recent one. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing') + >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else') + >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing') + + + .. method:: assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=False) + + assert the mock has been called with the specified calls. + The `mock_calls` list is checked for the calls. + + If `any_order` is False (the default) then the calls must be + sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the + specified calls. + + If `any_order` is True then the calls can be in any order, but + they must all appear in :attr:`mock_calls`. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock(1) + >>> mock(2) + >>> mock(3) + >>> mock(4) + >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)] + >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls) + >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)] + >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True) + + + .. method:: reset_mock() + + The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock object: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock('hello') + >>> mock.called + True + >>> mock.reset_mock() + >>> mock.called + False + + This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that + reuse the same object. Note that `reset_mock` *doesn't* clear the + return value, :attr:`side_effect` or any child attributes you have + set using normal assignment. Child mocks and the return value mock + (if any) are reset as well. + + + .. method:: mock_add_spec(spec, spec_set=False) + + Add a spec to a mock. `spec` can either be an object or a + list of strings. Only attributes on the `spec` can be fetched as + attributes from the mock. + + If `spec_set` is `True` then only attributes on the spec can be set. + + + .. method:: attach_mock(mock, attribute) + + Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name and + parent. Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in the + :attr:`method_calls` and :attr:`mock_calls` attributes of this one. + + + .. method:: configure_mock(**kwargs) + + Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments. + + Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on child + mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a dictionary in the + method call: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} + >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs) + >>> mock.method() + 3 + >>> mock.other() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError + + The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to mocks: + + >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} + >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs) + >>> mock.some_attribute + 'eggs' + >>> mock.method() + 3 + >>> mock.other() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError + + `configure_mock` exists to make it easier to do configuration + after the mock has been created. + + + .. method:: __dir__() + + `Mock` objects limit the results of `dir(some_mock)` to useful results. + For mocks with a `spec` this includes all the permitted attributes + for the mock. + + See :data:`FILTER_DIR` for what this filtering does, and how to + switch it off. + + + .. method:: _get_child_mock(**kw) + + Create the child mocks for attributes and return value. + By default child mocks will be the same type as the parent. + Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the way + child mocks are made. + + For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used (rather than + any custom subclass). + + + .. attribute:: called + + A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been called: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock.called + False + >>> mock() + >>> mock.called + True + + .. attribute:: call_count + + An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been called: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock.call_count + 0 + >>> mock() + >>> mock() + >>> mock.call_count + 2 + + + .. attribute:: return_value + + Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.return_value = 'fish' + >>> mock() + 'fish' + + The default return value is a mock object and you can configure it in + the normal way: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute + >>> mock.return_value() + <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'> + >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with() + + `return_value` can also be set in the constructor: + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) + >>> mock.return_value + 3 + >>> mock() + 3 + + + .. attribute:: side_effect + + This can either be a function to be called when the mock is called, + or an exception (class or instance) to be raised. + + If you pass in a function it will be called with same arguments as the + mock and unless the function returns the :data:`DEFAULT` singleton the + call to the mock will then return whatever the function returns. If the + function returns :data:`DEFAULT` then the mock will return its normal + value (from the :attr:`return_value`. + + An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test exception + handling of an API): + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!') + >>> mock() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + Exception: Boom! + + Using `side_effect` to return a sequence of values: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1] + >>> mock(), mock(), mock() + (3, 2, 1) + + The `side_effect` function is called with the same arguments as the + mock (so it is wise for it to take arbitrary args and keyword + arguments) and whatever it returns is used as the return value for + the call. The exception is if `side_effect` returns :data:`DEFAULT`, + in which case the normal :attr:`return_value` is used. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) + >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): + ... return DEFAULT + ... + >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect + >>> mock() + 3 + + `side_effect` can be set in the constructor. Here's an example that + adds one to the value the mock is called with and returns it: + + >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1 + >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect) + >>> mock(3) + 4 + >>> mock(-8) + -7 + + Setting `side_effect` to `None` clears it: + + >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3) + >>> m() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError + >>> m.side_effect = None + >>> m() + 3 + + + .. attribute:: call_args + + This is either `None` (if the mock hasn't been called), or the + arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the + form of a tuple: the first member is any ordered arguments the mock + was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member is any + keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary). + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> print mock.call_args + None + >>> mock() + >>> mock.call_args + call() + >>> mock.call_args == () + True + >>> mock(3, 4) + >>> mock.call_args + call(3, 4) + >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),) + True + >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!') + >>> mock.call_args + call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!') + + `call_args`, along with members of the lists :attr:`call_args_list`, + :attr:`method_calls` and :attr:`mock_calls` are :data:`call` objects. + These are tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual + arguments and make more complex assertions. See + :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`. + + + .. attribute:: call_args_list + + This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in sequence + (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been + called). Before any calls have been made it is an empty list. The + :data:`call` object can be used for conveniently constructing lists of + calls to compare with `call_args_list`. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock() + >>> mock(3, 4) + >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!') + >>> mock.call_args_list + [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')] + >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)] + >>> mock.call_args_list == expected + True + + Members of `call_args_list` are :data:`call` objects. These can be + unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See + :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`. + + + .. attribute:: method_calls + + As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track calls to + methods and attributes, and *their* methods and attributes: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.method() + <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> + >>> mock.property.method.attribute() + <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'> + >>> mock.method_calls + [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()] + + Members of `method_calls` are :data:`call` objects. These can be + unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See + :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`. + + + .. attribute:: mock_calls + + `mock_calls` records *all* calls to the mock object, its methods, magic + methods *and* return value mocks. + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock.first(a=3) + <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'> + >>> mock.second() + <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'> + >>> int(mock) + 1 + >>> result(1) + <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'> + >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(), + ... call.__int__(), call()(1)] + >>> mock.mock_calls == expected + True + + Members of `mock_calls` are :data:`call` objects. These can be + unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See + :ref:`calls as tuples <calls-as-tuples>`. + + + .. attribute:: __class__ + + Normally the `__class__` attribute of an object will return its type. + For a mock object with a `spec` `__class__` returns the spec class + instead. This allows mock objects to pass `isinstance` tests for the + object they are replacing / masquerading as: + + >>> mock = Mock(spec=3) + >>> isinstance(mock, int) + True + + `__class__` is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an + `isinstance` check without forcing you to use a spec: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__class__ = dict + >>> isinstance(mock, dict) + True + +.. class:: NonCallableMock(spec=None, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs) + + A non-callable version of `Mock`. The constructor parameters have the same + meaning of `Mock`, with the exception of `return_value` and `side_effect` + which have no meaning on a non-callable mock. + +Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a `spec` or `spec_set` are able +to pass `isintance` tests: + + >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass) + >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass) + True + >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass()) + >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass) + True + +The `Mock` classes have support for mocking magic methods. See :ref:`magic +methods <magic-methods>` for the full details. + +The mock classes and the :func:`patch` decorators all take arbitrary keyword +arguments for configuration. For the `patch` decorators the keywords are +passed to the constructor of the mock being created. The keyword arguments +are for configuring attributes of the mock: + + >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish') + >>> m.attribute + 3 + >>> m.other + 'fish' + +The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same way, +using dotted notation. As you can't use dotted names directly in a call you +have to create a dictionary and unpack it using `**`: + + >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} + >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs) + >>> mock.some_attribute + 'eggs' + >>> mock.method() + 3 + >>> mock.other() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError + + +.. class:: PropertyMock(*args, **kwargs) + + A mock intended to be used as a property, or other descriptor, on a class. + `PropertyMock` provides `__get__` and `__set__` methods so you can specify + a return value when it is fetched. + + Fetching a `PropertyMock` instance from an object calls the mock, with + no args. Setting it calls the mock with the value being set. + + >>> class Foo(object): + ... @property + ... def foo(self): + ... return 'something' + ... @foo.setter + ... def foo(self, value): + ... pass + ... + >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo: + ... mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock' + ... this_foo = Foo() + ... print this_foo.foo + ... this_foo.foo = 6 + ... + mockity-mock + >>> mock_foo.mock_calls + [call(), call(6)] + +Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can't directly attach a +`PropertyMock` to a mock object. Instead you can attach it to the mock type +object:: + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3) + >>> type(m).foo = p + >>> m.foo + 3 + >>> p.assert_called_once_with() + + +Calling +~~~~~~~ + +Mock objects are callable. The call will return the value set as the +:attr:`~Mock.return_value` attribute. The default return value is a new Mock +object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed (either +explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the same one +returned each time. + +Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes +like :attr:`~Mock.call_args` and :attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`. + +If :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` is set then it will be called after the call has +been recorded, so if `side_effect` raises an exception the call is still +recorded. + +The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make +:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` an exception class or instance: + + >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError) + >>> m(1, 2, 3) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + IndexError + >>> m.mock_calls + [call(1, 2, 3)] + >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!') + >>> m('two', 'three', 'four') + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError: 'Bang!' + >>> m.mock_calls + [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')] + +If `side_effect` is a function then whatever that function returns is what +calls to the mock return. The `side_effect` function is called with the +same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the +call dynamically, based on the input: + + >>> def side_effect(value): + ... return value + 1 + ... + >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect) + >>> m(1) + 2 + >>> m(2) + 3 + >>> m.mock_calls + [call(1), call(2)] + +If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or +any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return +`mock.return_value` from inside `side_effect`, or return :data:`DEFAULT`: + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): + ... return m.return_value + ... + >>> m.side_effect = side_effect + >>> m.return_value = 3 + >>> m() + 3 + >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): + ... return DEFAULT + ... + >>> m.side_effect = side_effect + >>> m() + 3 + +To remove a `side_effect`, and return to the default behaviour, set the +`side_effect` to `None`: + + >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6) + >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): + ... return 3 + ... + >>> m.side_effect = side_effect + >>> m() + 3 + >>> m.side_effect = None + >>> m() + 6 + +The `side_effect` can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock +will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and +a `StopIteration` is raised): + + >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3]) + >>> m() + 1 + >>> m() + 2 + >>> m() + 3 + >>> m() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + StopIteration + +If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised instead of +returned:: + + >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66) + >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable) + >>> m() + 33 + >>> m() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + ValueError + >>> m() + 66 + + +.. _deleting-attributes: + +Deleting Attributes +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +Mock objects create attributes on demand. This allows them to pretend to be +objects of any type. + +You may want a mock object to return `False` to a `hasattr` call, or raise an +`AttributeError` when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing +an object as a `spec` for a mock, but that isn't always convenient. + +You "block" attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute +will raise an `AttributeError`. + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> hasattr(mock, 'm') + True + >>> del mock.m + >>> hasattr(mock, 'm') + False + >>> del mock.f + >>> mock.f + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: f + + +Attaching Mocks as Attributes +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + +When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return +value) it becomes a "child" of that mock. Calls to the child are recorded in +the :attr:`~Mock.method_calls` and :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` attributes of the +parent. This is useful for configuring child mocks and then attaching them to +the parent, or for attaching mocks to a parent that records all calls to the +children and allows you to make assertions about the order of calls between +mocks: + + >>> parent = MagicMock() + >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None) + >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None) + >>> parent.child1 = child1 + >>> parent.child2 = child2 + >>> child1(1) + >>> child2(2) + >>> parent.mock_calls + [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)] + +The exception to this is if the mock has a name. This allows you to prevent +the "parenting" if for some reason you don't want it to happen. + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child') + >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child + >>> mock.attribute() + <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'> + >>> mock.mock_calls + [] + +Mocks created for you by :func:`patch` are automatically given names. To +attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the :meth:`~Mock.attach_mock` +method: + + >>> thing1 = object() + >>> thing2 = object() + >>> parent = MagicMock() + >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1: + ... with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2: + ... parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1') + ... parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2') + ... child1('one') + ... child2('two') + ... + >>> parent.mock_calls + [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')] + + +.. [#] The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that have + leading and trailing double underscores). Mock doesn't create these but + instead of raises an ``AttributeError``. This is because the interpreter + will often implicitly request these methods, and gets *very* confused to + get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method. If you need magic + method support see :ref:`magic methods <magic-methods>`. + + +The patchers +============ + +The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope of +the function they decorate. They automatically handle the unpatching for you, +even if exceptions are raised. All of these functions can also be used in with +statements or as class decorators. + + +patch +----- + +.. note:: + + `patch` is straightforward to use. The key is to do the patching in the + right namespace. See the section `where to patch`_. + +.. function:: patch(target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) + + `patch` acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a context + manager. Inside the body of the function or with statement, the `target` + is patched with a `new` object. When the function/with statement exits + the patch is undone. + + If `new` is omitted, then the target is replaced with a + :class:`MagicMock`. If `patch` is used as a decorator and `new` is + omitted, the created mock is passed in as an extra argument to the + decorated function. If `patch` is used as a context manager the created + mock is returned by the context manager. + + `target` should be a string in the form `'package.module.ClassName'`. The + `target` is imported and the specified object replaced with the `new` + object, so the `target` must be importable from the environment you are + calling `patch` from. The target is imported when the decorated function + is executed, not at decoration time. + + The `spec` and `spec_set` keyword arguments are passed to the `MagicMock` + if patch is creating one for you. + + In addition you can pass `spec=True` or `spec_set=True`, which causes + patch to pass in the object being mocked as the spec/spec_set object. + + `new_callable` allows you to specify a different class, or callable object, + that will be called to create the `new` object. By default `MagicMock` is + used. + + A more powerful form of `spec` is `autospec`. If you set `autospec=True` + then the mock with be created with a spec from the object being replaced. + All attributes of the mock will also have the spec of the corresponding + attribute of the object being replaced. Methods and functions being mocked + will have their arguments checked and will raise a `TypeError` if they are + called with the wrong signature. For mocks + replacing a class, their return value (the 'instance') will have the same + spec as the class. See the :func:`create_autospec` function and + :ref:`auto-speccing`. + + Instead of `autospec=True` you can pass `autospec=some_object` to use an + arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being replaced. + + By default `patch` will fail to replace attributes that don't exist. If + you pass in `create=True`, and the attribute doesn't exist, patch will + create the attribute for you when the patched function is called, and + delete it again afterwards. This is useful for writing tests against + attributes that your production code creates at runtime. It is off by by + default because it can be dangerous. With it switched on you can write + passing tests against APIs that don't actually exist! + + Patch can be used as a `TestCase` class decorator. It works by + decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate + code when your test methods share a common patchings set. `patch` finds + tests by looking for method names that start with `patch.TEST_PREFIX`. + By default this is `test`, which matches the way `unittest` finds tests. + You can specify an alternative prefix by setting `patch.TEST_PREFIX`. + + Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement. Here the + patching applies to the indented block after the with statement. If you + use "as" then the patched object will be bound to the name after the + "as"; very useful if `patch` is creating a mock object for you. + + `patch` takes arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be passed to + the `Mock` (or `new_callable`) on construction. + + `patch.dict(...)`, `patch.multiple(...)` and `patch.object(...)` are + available for alternate use-cases. + +`patch` as function decorator, creating the mock for you and passing it into +the decorated function: + + >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass') + ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class): + ... print(mock_class is SomeClass) + ... + >>> function(None) + True + +Patching a class replaces the class with a `MagicMock` *instance*. If the +class is instantiated in the code under test then it will be the +:attr:`~Mock.return_value` of the mock that will be used. + +If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use +:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` to return a new mock each time. Alternatively you +can set the `return_value` to be anything you want. + +To configure return values on methods of *instances* on the patched class +you must do this on the `return_value`. For example: + + >>> class Class(object): + ... def method(self): + ... pass + ... + >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass: + ... instance = MockClass.return_value + ... instance.method.return_value = 'foo' + ... assert Class() is instance + ... assert Class().method() == 'foo' + ... + +If you use `spec` or `spec_set` and `patch` is replacing a *class*, then the +return value of the created mock will have the same spec. + + >>> Original = Class + >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True) + >>> MockClass = patcher.start() + >>> instance = MockClass() + >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original) + >>> patcher.stop() + +The `new_callable` argument is useful where you want to use an alternative +class to the default :class:`MagicMock` for the created mock. For example, if +you wanted a :class:`NonCallableMock` to be used: + + >>> thing = object() + >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing: + ... assert thing is mock_thing + ... thing() + ... + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable + +Another use case might be to replace an object with a `StringIO` instance: + + >>> from StringIO import StringIO + >>> def foo(): + ... print 'Something' + ... + >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO) + ... def test(mock_stdout): + ... foo() + ... assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n' + ... + >>> test() + +When `patch` is creating a mock for you, it is common that the first thing +you need to do is to configure the mock. Some of that configuration can be done +in the call to patch. Any arbitrary keywords you pass into the call will be +used to set attributes on the created mock: + + >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two') + >>> mock_thing = patcher.start() + >>> mock_thing.first + 'one' + >>> mock_thing.second + 'two' + +As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the +:attr:`~Mock.return_value` and :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`, of child mocks can +also be configured. These aren't syntactically valid to pass in directly as +keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be expanded +into a `patch` call using `**`: + + >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} + >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config) + >>> mock_thing = patcher.start() + >>> mock_thing.method() + 3 + >>> mock_thing.other() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + KeyError + + +patch.object +------------ + +.. function:: patch.object(target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) + + patch the named member (`attribute`) on an object (`target`) with a mock + object. + + `patch.object` can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context + manager. Arguments `new`, `spec`, `create`, `spec_set`, `autospec` and + `new_callable` have the same meaning as for `patch`. Like `patch`, + `patch.object` takes arbitrary keyword arguments for configuring the mock + object it creates. + + When used as a class decorator `patch.object` honours `patch.TEST_PREFIX` + for choosing which methods to wrap. + +You can either call `patch.object` with three arguments or two arguments. The +three argument form takes the object to be patched, the attribute name and the +object to replace the attribute with. + +When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object, and a +mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the decorated +function: + + >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method') + ... def test(mock_method): + ... SomeClass.class_method(3) + ... mock_method.assert_called_with(3) + ... + >>> test() + +`spec`, `create` and the other arguments to `patch.object` have the same +meaning as they do for `patch`. + + +patch.dict +---------- + +.. function:: patch.dict(in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs) + + Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the dictionary + to its original state after the test. + + `in_dict` can be a dictionary or a mapping like container. If it is a + mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and deleting items + plus iterating over keys. + + `in_dict` can also be a string specifying the name of the dictionary, which + will then be fetched by importing it. + + `values` can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary. `values` + can also be an iterable of `(key, value)` pairs. + + If `clear` is True then the dictionary will be cleared before the new + values are set. + + `patch.dict` can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments to set + values in the dictionary. + + `patch.dict` can be used as a context manager, decorator or class + decorator. When used as a class decorator `patch.dict` honours + `patch.TEST_PREFIX` for choosing which methods to wrap. + +`patch.dict` can be used to add members to a dictionary, or simply let a test +change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is restored when the test +ends. + + >>> foo = {} + >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}): + ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} + ... + >>> assert foo == {} + + >>> import os + >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}): + ... print os.environ['newkey'] + ... + newvalue + >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ + +Keywords can be used in the `patch.dict` call to set values in the dictionary: + + >>> mymodule = MagicMock() + >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish' + >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule): + ... import mymodule + ... mymodule.function('some', 'args') + ... + 'fish' + +`patch.dict` can be used with dictionary like objects that aren't actually +dictionaries. At the very minimum they must support item getting, setting, +deleting and either iteration or membership test. This corresponds to the +magic methods `__getitem__`, `__setitem__`, `__delitem__` and either +`__iter__` or `__contains__`. + + >>> class Container(object): + ... def __init__(self): + ... self.values = {} + ... def __getitem__(self, name): + ... return self.values[name] + ... def __setitem__(self, name, value): + ... self.values[name] = value + ... def __delitem__(self, name): + ... del self.values[name] + ... def __iter__(self): + ... return iter(self.values) + ... + >>> thing = Container() + >>> thing['one'] = 1 + >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3): + ... assert thing['one'] == 2 + ... assert thing['two'] == 3 + ... + >>> assert thing['one'] == 1 + >>> assert list(thing) == ['one'] + + +patch.multiple +-------------- + +.. function:: patch.multiple(target, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) + + Perform multiple patches in a single call. It takes the object to be + patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by importing) + and keyword arguments for the patches:: + + with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'): + ... + + Use :data:`DEFAULT` as the value if you want `patch.multiple` to create + mocks for you. In this case the created mocks are passed into a decorated + function by keyword, and a dictionary is returned when `patch.multiple` is + used as a context manager. + + `patch.multiple` can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context + manager. The arguments `spec`, `spec_set`, `create`, `autospec` and + `new_callable` have the same meaning as for `patch`. These arguments will + be applied to *all* patches done by `patch.multiple`. + + When used as a class decorator `patch.multiple` honours `patch.TEST_PREFIX` + for choosing which methods to wrap. + +If you want `patch.multiple` to create mocks for you, then you can use +:data:`DEFAULT` as the value. If you use `patch.multiple` as a decorator +then the created mocks are passed into the decorated function by keyword. + + >>> thing = object() + >>> other = object() + + >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) + ... def test_function(thing, other): + ... assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock) + ... assert isinstance(other, MagicMock) + ... + >>> test_function() + +`patch.multiple` can be nested with other `patch` decorators, but put arguments +passed by keyword *after* any of the standard arguments created by `patch`: + + >>> @patch('sys.exit') + ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) + ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing): + ... assert 'other' in repr(other) + ... assert 'thing' in repr(thing) + ... assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit) + ... + >>> test_function() + +If `patch.multiple` is used as a context manager, the value returned by the +context manger is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name: + + >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values: + ... assert 'other' in repr(values['other']) + ... assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing']) + ... assert values['thing'] is thing + ... assert values['other'] is other + ... + + +.. _start-and-stop: + +patch methods: start and stop +----------------------------- + +All the patchers have `start` and `stop` methods. These make it simpler to do +patching in `setUp` methods or where you want to do multiple patches without +nesting decorators or with statements. + +To use them call `patch`, `patch.object` or `patch.dict` as normal and keep a +reference to the returned `patcher` object. You can then call `start` to put +the patch in place and `stop` to undo it. + +If you are using `patch` to create a mock for you then it will be returned by +the call to `patcher.start`. + + >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName') + >>> from package import module + >>> original = module.ClassName + >>> new_mock = patcher.start() + >>> assert module.ClassName is not original + >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock + >>> patcher.stop() + >>> assert module.ClassName is original + >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock + + +A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the `setUp` +method of a `TestCase`: + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... def setUp(self): + ... self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1') + ... self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2') + ... self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start() + ... self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start() + ... + ... def tearDown(self): + ... self.patcher1.stop() + ... self.patcher2.stop() + ... + ... def test_something(self): + ... assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1 + ... assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2 + ... + >>> MyTest('test_something').run() + +.. caution:: + + If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by + calling `stop`. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an + exception is raised in the ``setUp`` then ``tearDown`` is not called. + :meth:`unittest.TestCase.addCleanup` makes this easier: + + >>> class MyTest(TestCase): + ... def setUp(self): + ... patcher = patch('package.module.Class') + ... self.MockClass = patcher.start() + ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) + ... + ... def test_something(self): + ... assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass + ... + + As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the `patcher` + object. + +It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using +`patch.stopall`. + +.. function:: patch.stopall + + Stop all active patches. Only stops patches started with `start`. + + +TEST_PREFIX +----------- + +All of the patchers can be used as class decorators. When used in this way +they wrap every test method on the class. The patchers recognise methods that +start with `test` as being test methods. This is the same way that the +:class:`unittest.TestLoader` finds test methods by default. + +It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests. You can +inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting `patch.TEST_PREFIX`: + + >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo' + >>> value = 3 + >>> + >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three') + ... class Thing(object): + ... def foo_one(self): + ... print value + ... def foo_two(self): + ... print value + ... + >>> + >>> Thing().foo_one() + not three + >>> Thing().foo_two() + not three + >>> value + 3 + + +Nesting Patch Decorators +------------------------ + +If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the +decorators. + +You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern: + + >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method') + ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method') + ... def test(mock1, mock2): + ... assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1 + ... assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2 + ... SomeClass.static_method('foo') + ... SomeClass.class_method('bar') + ... return mock1, mock2 + ... + >>> mock1, mock2 = test() + >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo') + >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar') + + +Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards. This is the +standard way that Python applies decorators. The order of the created mocks +passed into your test function matches this order. + + +.. _where-to-patch: + +Where to patch +-------------- + +`patch` works by (temporarily) changing the object that a *name* points to with +another one. There can be many names pointing to any individual object, so +for patching to work you must ensure that you patch the name used by the system +under test. + +The basic principle is that you patch where an object is *looked up*, which +is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined. A couple of +examples will help to clarify this. + +Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure:: + + a.py + -> Defines SomeClass + + b.py + -> from a import SomeClass + -> some_function instantiates SomeClass + +Now we want to test `some_function` but we want to mock out `SomeClass` using +`patch`. The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to +do then it imports `SomeClass` from module a. If we use `patch` to mock out +`a.SomeClass` then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a +reference to the *real* `SomeClass` and it looks like our patching had no +effect. + +The key is to patch out `SomeClass` where it is used (or where it is looked up +). In this case `some_function` will actually look up `SomeClass` in module b, +where we have imported it. The patching should look like:: + + @patch('b.SomeClass') + +However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of `from a import +SomeClass` module b does `import a` and `some_function` uses `a.SomeClass`. Both +of these import forms are common. In this case the class we want to patch is +being looked up on the a module and so we have to patch `a.SomeClass` instead:: + + @patch('a.SomeClass') + + +Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects +-------------------------------------- + +Both patch_ and patch.object_ correctly patch and restore descriptors: class +methods, static methods and properties. You should patch these on the *class* +rather than an instance. They also work with *some* objects +that proxy attribute access, like the `django setttings object +<http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198>`_. + + +MagicMock and magic method support +================================== + +.. _magic-methods: + +Mocking Magic Methods +--------------------- + +:class:`Mock` supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also known as +"magic methods". This allows mock objects to replace containers or other +objects that implement Python protocols. + +Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods [#]_, this +support has been specially implemented. This means that only specific magic +methods are supported. The supported list includes *almost* all of them. If +there are any missing that you need please let us know. + +You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a function +or a mock instance. If you are using a function then it *must* take ``self`` as +the first argument [#]_. + + >>> def __str__(self): + ... return 'fooble' + ... + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__str__ = __str__ + >>> str(mock) + 'fooble' + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__str__ = Mock() + >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble' + >>> str(mock) + 'fooble' + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([])) + >>> list(mock) + [] + +One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in a +`with` statement: + + >>> mock = Mock() + >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo') + >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False) + >>> with mock as m: + ... assert m == 'foo' + ... + >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with() + >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None) + +Calls to magic methods do not appear in :attr:`~Mock.method_calls`, but they +are recorded in :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls`. + +.. note:: + + If you use the `spec` keyword argument to create a mock then attempting to + set a magic method that isn't in the spec will raise an `AttributeError`. + +The full list of supported magic methods is: + +* ``__hash__``, ``__sizeof__``, ``__repr__`` and ``__str__`` +* ``__dir__``, ``__format__`` and ``__subclasses__`` +* ``__floor__``, ``__trunc__`` and ``__ceil__`` +* Comparisons: ``__cmp__``, ``__lt__``, ``__gt__``, ``__le__``, ``__ge__``, + ``__eq__`` and ``__ne__`` +* Container methods: ``__getitem__``, ``__setitem__``, ``__delitem__``, + ``__contains__``, ``__len__``, ``__iter__``, ``__getslice__``, + ``__setslice__``, ``__reversed__`` and ``__missing__`` +* Context manager: ``__enter__`` and ``__exit__`` +* Unary numeric methods: ``__neg__``, ``__pos__`` and ``__invert__`` +* The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants): + ``__add__``, ``__sub__``, ``__mul__``, ``__div__``, + ``__floordiv__``, ``__mod__``, ``__divmod__``, ``__lshift__``, + ``__rshift__``, ``__and__``, ``__xor__``, ``__or__``, and ``__pow__`` +* Numeric conversion methods: ``__complex__``, ``__int__``, ``__float__``, + ``__index__`` and ``__coerce__`` +* Descriptor methods: ``__get__``, ``__set__`` and ``__delete__`` +* Pickling: ``__reduce__``, ``__reduce_ex__``, ``__getinitargs__``, + ``__getnewargs__``, ``__getstate__`` and ``__setstate__`` + + +The following methods exist but are *not* supported as they are either in use +by mock, can't be set dynamically, or can cause problems: + +* ``__getattr__``, ``__setattr__``, ``__init__`` and ``__new__`` +* ``__prepare__``, ``__instancecheck__``, ``__subclasscheck__``, ``__del__`` + + + +Magic Mock +---------- + +There are two `MagicMock` variants: `MagicMock` and `NonCallableMagicMock`. + + +.. class:: MagicMock(*args, **kw) + + ``MagicMock`` is a subclass of :class:`Mock` with default implementations + of most of the magic methods. You can use ``MagicMock`` without having to + configure the magic methods yourself. + + The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for :class:`Mock`. + + If you use the `spec` or `spec_set` arguments then *only* magic methods + that exist in the spec will be created. + + +.. class:: NonCallableMagicMock(*args, **kw) + + A non-callable version of `MagicMock`. + + The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for + :class:`MagicMock`, with the exception of `return_value` and + `side_effect` which have no meaning on a non-callable mock. + +The magic methods are setup with `MagicMock` objects, so you can configure them +and use them in the usual way: + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock[3] = 'fish' + >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish') + >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result' + >>> mock[2] + 'result' + +By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects of a +specific type. These methods are preconfigured with a default return value, so +that they can be used without you having to do anything if you aren't interested +in the return value. You can still *set* the return value manually if you want +to change the default. + +Methods and their defaults: + +* ``__lt__``: NotImplemented +* ``__gt__``: NotImplemented +* ``__le__``: NotImplemented +* ``__ge__``: NotImplemented +* ``__int__`` : 1 +* ``__contains__`` : False +* ``__len__`` : 1 +* ``__iter__`` : iter([]) +* ``__exit__`` : False +* ``__complex__`` : 1j +* ``__float__`` : 1.0 +* ``__bool__`` : True +* ``__index__`` : 1 +* ``__hash__`` : default hash for the mock +* ``__str__`` : default str for the mock +* ``__sizeof__``: default sizeof for the mock + +For example: + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> int(mock) + 1 + >>> len(mock) + 0 + >>> list(mock) + [] + >>> object() in mock + False + +The two equality method, `__eq__` and `__ne__`, are special. +They do the default equality comparison on identity, using a side +effect, unless you change their return value to return something else: + + >>> MagicMock() == 3 + False + >>> MagicMock() != 3 + True + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True + >>> mock == 3 + True + +The return value of `MagicMock.__iter__` can be any iterable object and isn't +required to be an iterator: + + >>> mock = MagicMock() + >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c'] + >>> list(mock) + ['a', 'b', 'c'] + >>> list(mock) + ['a', 'b', 'c'] + +If the return value *is* an iterator, then iterating over it once will consume +it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list: + + >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c']) + >>> list(mock) + ['a', 'b', 'c'] + >>> list(mock) + [] + +``MagicMock`` has all of the supported magic methods configured except for some +of the obscure and obsolete ones. You can still set these up if you want. + +Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ``MagicMock`` are: + +* ``__subclasses__`` +* ``__dir__`` +* ``__format__`` +* ``__get__``, ``__set__`` and ``__delete__`` +* ``__reversed__`` and ``__missing__`` +* ``__reduce__``, ``__reduce_ex__``, ``__getinitargs__``, ``__getnewargs__``, + ``__getstate__`` and ``__setstate__`` +* ``__getformat__`` and ``__setformat__`` + + + +.. [#] Magic methods *should* be looked up on the class rather than the + instance. Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying this + rule. The supported protocol methods should work with all supported versions + of Python. +.. [#] The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ``Mock`` + instance is kept isolated from the others. + + +Helpers +======= + +sentinel +-------- + +.. data:: sentinel + + The ``sentinel`` object provides a convenient way of providing unique + objects for your tests. + + Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name. Accessing + the same attribute will always return the same object. The objects + returned have a sensible repr so that test failure messages are readable. + +Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed as an +argument to another method, or returned. It can be common to create named +sentinel objects to test this. `sentinel` provides a convenient way of +creating and testing the identity of objects like this. + +In this example we monkey patch `method` to return `sentinel.some_object`: + + >>> real = ProductionClass() + >>> real.method = Mock(name="method") + >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object + >>> result = real.method() + >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object + >>> sentinel.some_object + sentinel.some_object + + +DEFAULT +------- + + +.. data:: DEFAULT + + The `DEFAULT` object is a pre-created sentinel (actually + `sentinel.DEFAULT`). It can be used by :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` + functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used. + + + +call +---- + +.. function:: call(*args, **kwargs) + + `call` is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for comparing with + :attr:`~Mock.call_args`, :attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`, + :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` and :attr:`~Mock.method_calls`. `call` can also be + used with :meth:`~Mock.assert_has_calls`. + + >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) + >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar') + >>> m() + >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()] + True + +.. method:: call.call_list() + + For a call object that represents multiple calls, `call_list` + returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the + final call. + +`call_list` is particularly useful for making assertions on "chained calls". A +chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code. This results in +multiple entries in :attr:`~Mock.mock_calls` on a mock. Manually constructing +the sequence of calls can be tedious. + +:meth:`~call.call_list` can construct the sequence of calls from the same +chained call: + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0) + <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'> + >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0) + >>> kall.call_list() + [call(1), + call().method(arg='foo'), + call().method().other('bar'), + call().method().other()(2.0)] + >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list() + True + +.. _calls-as-tuples: + +A `call` object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or +(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was constructed. When +you construct them yourself this isn't particularly interesting, but the `call` +objects that are in the :attr:`Mock.call_args`, :attr:`Mock.call_args_list` and +:attr:`Mock.mock_calls` attributes can be introspected to get at the individual +arguments they contain. + +The `call` objects in :attr:`Mock.call_args` and :attr:`Mock.call_args_list` +are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword args) whereas the `call` objects +in :attr:`Mock.mock_calls`, along with ones you construct yourself, are +three-tuples of (name, positional args, keyword args). + +You can use their "tupleness" to pull out the individual arguments for more +complex introspection and assertions. The positional arguments are a tuple +(an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the keyword +arguments are a dictionary: + + >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) + >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two') + >>> kall = m.call_args + >>> args, kwargs = kall + >>> args + (1, 2, 3) + >>> kwargs + {'arg2': 'two', 'arg': 'one'} + >>> args is kall[0] + True + >>> kwargs is kall[1] + True + + >>> m = MagicMock() + >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three') + <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'> + >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0] + >>> name, args, kwargs = kall + >>> name + 'foo' + >>> args + (4, 5, 6) + >>> kwargs + {'arg2': 'three', 'arg': 'two'} + >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0] + True + + +create_autospec +--------------- + +.. function:: create_autospec(spec, spec_set=False, instance=False, **kwargs) + + Create a mock object using another object as a spec. Attributes on the + mock will use the corresponding attribute on the `spec` object as their + spec. + + Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked to + ensure that they are called with the correct signature. + + If `spec_set` is `True` then attempting to set attributes that don't exist + on the spec object will raise an `AttributeError`. + + If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the + instance of the class) will have the same spec. You can use a class as the + spec for an instance object by passing `instance=True`. The returned mock + will only be callable if instances of the mock are callable. + + `create_autospec` also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are passed to + the constructor of the created mock. + +See :ref:`auto-speccing` for examples of how to use auto-speccing with +`create_autospec` and the `autospec` argument to :func:`patch`. + + +ANY +--- + +.. data:: ANY + +Sometimes you may need to make assertions about *some* of the arguments in a +call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or want to pull +them individually out of :attr:`~Mock.call_args` and make more complex +assertions on them. + +To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal to +*everything*. Calls to :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` and +:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with` will then succeed no matter what was +passed in. + + >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) + >>> mock('foo', bar=object()) + >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY) + +`ANY` can also be used in comparisons with call lists like +:attr:`~Mock.mock_calls`: + + >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) + >>> m(1) + >>> m(1, 2) + >>> m(object()) + >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY] + True + + + +FILTER_DIR +---------- + +.. data:: FILTER_DIR + +`FILTER_DIR` is a module level variable that controls the way mock objects +respond to `dir` (only for Python 2.6 or more recent). The default is `True`, +which uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members. If you +dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic purposes, then +set `mock.FILTER_DIR = False`. + +With filtering on, `dir(some_mock)` shows only useful attributes and will +include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn't normally be shown. +If the mock was created with a `spec` (or `autospec` of course) then all the +attributes from the original are shown, even if they haven't been accessed +yet: + + >>> dir(Mock()) + ['assert_any_call', + 'assert_called_once_with', + 'assert_called_with', + 'assert_has_calls', + 'attach_mock', + ... + >>> from urllib import request + >>> dir(Mock(spec=request)) + ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler', + 'AbstractDigestAuthHandler', + 'AbstractHTTPHandler', + 'BaseHandler', + ... + +Many of the not-very-useful (private to `Mock` rather than the thing being +mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes have been +filtered from the result of calling `dir` on a `Mock`. If you dislike this +behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch +`FILTER_DIR`: + + >>> from unittest import mock + >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False + >>> dir(mock.Mock()) + ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value', + '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect', + '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc', + '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value', + '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect', + '__call__', + '__class__', + ... + +Alternatively you can just use `vars(my_mock)` (instance members) and +`dir(type(my_mock))` (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of +`mock.FILTER_DIR`. + + +mock_open +--------- + +.. function:: mock_open(mock=None, read_data=None) + + A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of `open`. It works + for `open` called directly or used as a context manager. + + The `mock` argument is the mock object to configure. If `None` (the + default) then a `MagicMock` will be created for you, with the API limited + to methods or attributes available on standard file handles. + + `read_data` is a string for the `read` method of the file handle to return. + This is an empty string by default. + +Using `open` as a context manager is a great way to ensure your file handles +are closed properly and is becoming common:: + + with open('/some/path', 'w') as f: + f.write('something') + +The issue is that even if you mock out the call to `open` it is the +*returned object* that is used as a context manager (and has `__enter__` and +`__exit__` called). + +Mocking context managers with a :class:`MagicMock` is common enough and fiddly +enough that a helper function is useful. + + >>> m = mock_open() + >>> with patch('__main__.open', m, create=True): + ... with open('foo', 'w') as h: + ... h.write('some stuff') + ... + >>> m.mock_calls + [call('foo', 'w'), + call().__enter__(), + call().write('some stuff'), + call().__exit__(None, None, None)] + >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w') + >>> handle = m() + >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff') + +And for reading files: + + >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble'), create=True) as m: + ... with open('foo') as h: + ... result = h.read() + ... + >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo') + >>> assert result == 'bibble' + + +.. _auto-speccing: + +Autospeccing +------------ + +Autospeccing is based on the existing `spec` feature of mock. It limits the +api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive +(implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as +the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the +same call signature as the original so they raise a `TypeError` if they are +called incorrectly. + +Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here's why it is needed. + +`Mock` is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from two flaws +when used to mock out objects from a system under test. One of these flaws is +specific to the `Mock` api and the other is a more general problem with using +mock objects. + +First the problem specific to `Mock`. `Mock` has two assert methods that are +extremely handy: :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` and +:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with`. + + >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None) + >>> mock(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times. + +Because mocks auto-create attributes on demand, and allow you to call them +with arbitrary arguments, if you misspell one of these assert methods then +your assertion is gone: + +.. code-block:: pycon + + >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None) + >>> mock(1, 2, 3) + >>> mock.assret_called_once_with(4, 5, 6) + +Your tests can pass silently and incorrectly because of the typo. + +The second issue is more general to mocking. If you refactor some of your +code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the +*old api* but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This +means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken. + +Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as +unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you +don't test how your units are "wired together" there is still lots of room +for bugs that tests might have caught. + +`mock` already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you +use a class or instance as the `spec` for a mock then you can only access +attributes on the mock that exist on the real class: + + >>> from urllib import request + >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request) + >>> mock.assret_called_with + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with' + +The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same issue +with any methods on the mock: + +.. code-block:: pycon + + >>> mock.has_data() + <mock.Mock object at 0x...> + >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with() + +Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass `autospec=True` to +`patch` / `patch.object` or use the `create_autospec` function to create a +mock with a spec. If you use the `autospec=True` argument to `patch` then the +object that is being replaced will be used as the spec object. Because the +speccing is done "lazily" (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are +accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects (like +modules that import modules that import modules) without a big performance +hit. + +Here's an example of it in use: + + >>> from urllib import request + >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True) + >>> mock_request = patcher.start() + >>> request is mock_request + True + >>> mock_request.Request + <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'> + +You can see that `request.Request` has a spec. `request.Request` takes two +arguments in the constructor (one of which is `self`). Here's what happens if +we try to call it incorrectly: + + >>> req = request.Request() + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given) + +The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e. the return value of +specced mocks): + + >>> req = request.Request('foo') + >>> req + <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'> + +`Request` objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our +mocked out `request.Request` is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place +any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error: + + >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs') + <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'> + >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with' + >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs') + +In many cases you will just be able to add `autospec=True` to your existing +`patch` calls and then be protected against bugs due to typos and api +changes. + +As well as using `autospec` through `patch` there is a +:func:`create_autospec` for creating autospecced mocks directly: + + >>> from urllib import request + >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request) + >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar') + <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'> + +This isn't without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is not +the default behaviour. In order to know what attributes are available on the +spec object, autospec has to introspect (access attributes) the spec. As you +traverse attributes on the mock a corresponding traversal of the original +object is happening under the hood. If any of your specced objects have +properties or descriptors that can trigger code execution then you may not be +able to use autospec. On the other hand it is much better to design your +objects so that introspection is safe [#]_. + +A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to be +created in the `__init__` method and not to exist on the class at all. +`autospec` can't know about any dynamically created attributes and restricts +the api to visible attributes. + + >>> class Something(object): + ... def __init__(self): + ... self.a = 33 + ... + >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True): + ... thing = Something() + ... thing.a + ... + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a' + +There are a few different ways of resolving this problem. The easiest, but +not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the required +attributes on the mock after creation. Just because `autospec` doesn't allow +you to fetch attributes that don't exist on the spec it doesn't prevent you +setting them: + + >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True): + ... thing = Something() + ... thing.a = 33 + ... + +There is a more aggressive version of both `spec` and `autospec` that *does* +prevent you setting non-existent attributes. This is useful if you want to +ensure your code only *sets* valid attributes too, but obviously it prevents +this particular scenario: + + >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True): + ... thing = Something() + ... thing.a = 33 + ... + Traceback (most recent call last): + ... + AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a' + +Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes as +default values for instance members initialised in `__init__`. Note that if +you are only setting default attributes in `__init__` then providing them via +class attributes (shared between instances of course) is faster too. e.g. + +.. code-block:: python + + class Something(object): + a = 33 + +This brings up another issue. It is relatively common to provide a default +value of `None` for members that will later be an object of a different type. +`None` would be useless as a spec because it wouldn't let you access *any* +attributes or methods on it. As `None` is *never* going to be useful as a +spec, and probably indicates a member that will normally of some other type, +`autospec` doesn't use a spec for members that are set to `None`. These will +just be ordinary mocks (well - `MagicMocks`): + + >>> class Something(object): + ... member = None + ... + >>> mock = create_autospec(Something) + >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz() + <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'> + +If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn't to your liking +then there are more options. One of these is simply to use an instance as the +spec rather than the class. The other is to create a subclass of the +production class and add the defaults to the subclass without affecting the +production class. Both of these require you to use an alternative object as +the spec. Thankfully `patch` supports this - you can simply pass the +alternative object as the `autospec` argument: + + >>> class Something(object): + ... def __init__(self): + ... self.a = 33 + ... + >>> class SomethingForTest(Something): + ... a = 33 + ... + >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest) + >>> mock = p.start() + >>> mock.a + <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'> + + +.. [#] This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects. Calling + a mocked class to create a mock instance *does not* create a real instance. + It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to `dir` - that are done. + diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.rst index 72a3a7b..2657ebd 100644 --- a/Doc/library/unittest.rst +++ b/Doc/library/unittest.rst @@ -792,11 +792,14 @@ Test cases Run the test, collecting the result into the test result object passed as *result*. If *result* is omitted or ``None``, a temporary result object is created (by calling the :meth:`defaultTestResult` method) and - used. The result object is not returned to :meth:`run`'s caller. + used. The result object is returned to :meth:`run`'s caller. The same effect may be had by simply calling the :class:`TestCase` instance. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Previous versions of ``run`` did not return the result. Neither did + calling an instance. .. method:: skipTest(reason) @@ -857,10 +860,11 @@ Test cases | <TestCase.assertNotIsInstance>` | | | +-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+ - All the assert methods (except :meth:`assertRaises`, - :meth:`assertRaisesRegex`, :meth:`assertWarns`, :meth:`assertWarnsRegex`) - accept a *msg* argument that, if specified, is used as the error message on - failure (see also :data:`longMessage`). + All the assert methods accept a *msg* argument that, if specified, is used + as the error message on failure (see also :data:`longMessage`). + Note that the *msg* keyword argument can be passed to :meth:`assertRaises`, + :meth:`assertRaisesRegex`, :meth:`assertWarns`, :meth:`assertWarnsRegex` + only when they are used as a context manager. .. method:: assertEqual(first, second, msg=None) @@ -955,7 +959,7 @@ Test cases +---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------+ .. method:: assertRaises(exception, callable, *args, **kwds) - assertRaises(exception) + assertRaises(exception, msg=None) Test that an exception is raised when *callable* is called with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to @@ -964,12 +968,16 @@ Test cases To catch any of a group of exceptions, a tuple containing the exception classes may be passed as *exception*. - If only the *exception* argument is given, returns a context manager so - that the code under test can be written inline rather than as a function:: + If only the *exception* and possibly the *msg* arguments are given, + return a context manager so that the code under test can be written + inline rather than as a function:: with self.assertRaises(SomeException): do_something() + When used as a context manager, :meth:`assertRaises` accepts the + additional keyword argument *msg*. + The context manager will store the caught exception object in its :attr:`exception` attribute. This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks on the exception raised:: @@ -986,9 +994,12 @@ Test cases .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added the :attr:`exception` attribute. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager. + .. method:: assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, callable, *args, **kwds) - assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex) + assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, msg=None) Like :meth:`assertRaises` but also tests that *regex* matches on the string representation of the raised exception. *regex* may be @@ -1005,12 +1016,16 @@ Test cases .. versionadded:: 3.1 under the name ``assertRaisesRegexp``. + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Renamed to :meth:`assertRaisesRegex`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager. + .. method:: assertWarns(warning, callable, *args, **kwds) - assertWarns(warning) + assertWarns(warning, msg=None) Test that a warning is triggered when *callable* is called with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to @@ -1019,12 +1034,16 @@ Test cases To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the warning classes may be passed as *warnings*. - If only the *warning* argument is given, returns a context manager so - that the code under test can be written inline rather than as a function:: + If only the *warning* and possibly the *msg* arguments are given, + returns a context manager so that the code under test can be written + inline rather than as a function:: with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning): do_something() + When used as a context manager, :meth:`assertRaises` accepts the + additional keyword argument *msg*. + The context manager will store the caught warning object in its :attr:`warning` attribute, and the source line which triggered the warnings in the :attr:`filename` and :attr:`lineno` attributes. @@ -1042,9 +1061,12 @@ Test cases .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager. + .. method:: assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, callable, *args, **kwds) - assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex) + assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, msg=None) Like :meth:`assertWarns` but also tests that *regex* matches on the message of the triggered warning. *regex* may be a regular expression @@ -1062,6 +1084,8 @@ Test cases .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager. There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks, such as: @@ -1151,21 +1175,6 @@ Test cases :meth:`.assertNotRegex`. - .. method:: assertDictContainsSubset(subset, dictionary, msg=None) - - Tests whether the key/value pairs in *dictionary* are a superset of - those in *subset*. If not, an error message listing the missing keys - and mismatched values is generated. - - Note, the arguments are in the opposite order of what the method name - dictates. Instead, consider using the set-methods on :ref:`dictionary - views <dict-views>`, for example: ``d.keys() <= e.keys()`` or - ``d.items() <= d.items()``. - - .. versionadded:: 3.1 - .. deprecated:: 3.2 - - .. method:: assertCountEqual(first, second, msg=None) Test that sequence *first* contains the same elements as *second*, @@ -1180,21 +1189,6 @@ Test cases .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. method:: assertSameElements(first, second, msg=None) - - Test that sequence *first* contains the same elements as *second*, - regardless of their order. When they don't, an error message listing - the differences between the sequences will be generated. - - Duplicate elements are ignored when comparing *first* and *second*. - It is the equivalent of ``assertEqual(set(first), set(second))`` - but it works with sequences of unhashable objects as well. Because - duplicates are ignored, this method has been deprecated in favour of - :meth:`assertCountEqual`. - - .. versionadded:: 3.1 - .. deprecated:: 3.2 - .. _type-specific-methods: diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst index 282329f..e20db27 100644 --- a/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst +++ b/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst @@ -8,21 +8,23 @@ The :mod:`urllib.error` module defines the exception classes for exceptions -raised by :mod:`urllib.request`. The base exception class is :exc:`URLError`, -which inherits from :exc:`IOError`. +raised by :mod:`urllib.request`. The base exception class is :exc:`URLError`. The following exceptions are raised by :mod:`urllib.error` as appropriate: .. exception:: URLError The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into - a problem. It is a subclass of :exc:`IOError`. + a problem. It is a subclass of :exc:`OSError`. .. attribute:: reason The reason for this error. It can be a message string or another - exception instance (:exc:`socket.error` for remote URLs, :exc:`OSError` - for local URLs). + exception instance. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`URLError` has been made a subclass of :exc:`OSError` instead + of :exc:`IOError`. .. exception:: HTTPError diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst index b4764cc..898fe71 100644 --- a/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst +++ b/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ authentication, redirections, cookies and more. The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions: -.. function:: urlopen(url, data=None[, timeout], *, cafile=None, capath=None) +.. function:: urlopen(url, data=None[, timeout], *, cafile=None, capath=None, cadefault=True) Open the URL *url*, which can be either a string or a :class:`Request` object. @@ -53,9 +53,15 @@ The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions: point to a directory of hashed certificate files. More information can be found in :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations`. + The *cadefault* parameter specifies whether to fall back to loading a + default certificate store defined by the underlying OpenSSL library if the + *cafile* and *capath* parameters are omitted. This will only work on + some non-Windows platforms. + .. warning:: - If neither *cafile* nor *capath* is specified, an HTTPS request - will not do any verification of the server's certificate. + If neither *cafile* nor *capath* is specified, and *cadefault* is False, + an HTTPS request will not do any verification of the server's + certificate. This function returns a file-like object that works as a :term:`context manager`, with two additional methods from the :mod:`urllib.response` module @@ -92,6 +98,9 @@ The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions: .. versionadded:: 3.2 *data* can be an iterable object. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + *cadefault* was added. + .. function:: install_opener(opener) Install an :class:`OpenerDirector` instance as the default global opener. @@ -145,7 +154,7 @@ The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions: The following classes are provided: -.. class:: Request(url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False) +.. class:: Request(url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None) This class is an abstraction of a URL request. @@ -198,6 +207,13 @@ The following classes are provided: document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true. + *method* should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that + will be used (e.g. ``'HEAD'``). Its value is stored in the + :attr:`~Request.method` attribute and is used by :meth:`get_method()`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :attr:`Request.method` argument is added to the Request class. + .. class:: OpenerDirector() @@ -263,10 +279,11 @@ The following classes are provided: .. class:: HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None) - Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should be - something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section - :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be - supported. + Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should + be something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to + section :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must + be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a :exc:`ValueError` when + presented with a wrong Authentication scheme. .. class:: ProxyBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None) @@ -288,10 +305,19 @@ The following classes are provided: .. class:: HTTPDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None) - Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should be - something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to section - :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must be - supported. + Handle authentication with the remote host. *password_mgr*, if given, should + be something that is compatible with :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr`; refer to + section :ref:`http-password-mgr` for information on the interface that must + be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic + Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried + first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent + to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a + :exc:`ValueError` when presented with an authentication scheme other than + Digest or Basic. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Raise :exc:`ValueError` on unsupported Authentication Scheme. + .. class:: ProxyDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None) @@ -382,27 +408,25 @@ request. boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by RFC 2965. -.. method:: Request.add_data(data) - - Set the :class:`Request` data to *data*. This is ignored by all handlers except - HTTP handlers --- and there it should be a byte string, and will change the - request to be ``POST`` rather than ``GET``. - - -.. method:: Request.get_method() - - Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. This is only meaningful for - HTTP requests, and currently always returns ``'GET'`` or ``'POST'``. +.. attribute:: Request.method + The HTTP request method to use. This value is used by + :meth:`~Request.get_method` to override the computed HTTP request + method that would otherwise be returned. This attribute is initialized with + the value of the *method* argument passed to the constructor. -.. method:: Request.has_data() + .. versionadded:: 3.3 - Return whether the instance has a non-\ ``None`` data. +.. method:: Request.get_method() -.. method:: Request.get_data() + Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If + :attr:`Request.method` is not ``None``, return its value, otherwise return + ``'GET'`` if :attr:`Request.data` is ``None``, or ``'POST'`` if it's not. + This is only meaningful for HTTP requests. - Return the instance's data. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + get_method now looks at the value of :attr:`Request.method`. .. method:: Request.add_header(key, val) @@ -432,20 +456,60 @@ request. Return the URL given in the constructor. +.. method:: Request.set_proxy(host, type) + + Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The *host* and *type* will + replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original + URL given in the constructor. + + +.. method:: Request.add_data(data) + + Set the :class:`Request` data to *data*. This is ignored by all handlers except + HTTP handlers --- and there it should be a byte string, and will change the + request to be ``POST`` rather than ``GET``. Deprecated in 3.3, use + :attr:`Request.data`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + + +.. method:: Request.has_data() + + Return whether the instance has a non-\ ``None`` data. Deprecated in 3.3, + use :attr:`Request.data`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + + +.. method:: Request.get_data() + + Return the instance's data. Deprecated in 3.3, use :attr:`Request.data`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 + + .. method:: Request.get_type() - Return the type of the URL --- also known as the scheme. + Return the type of the URL --- also known as the scheme. Deprecated in 3.3, + use :attr:`Request.type`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 .. method:: Request.get_host() - Return the host to which a connection will be made. + Return the host to which a connection will be made. Deprecated in 3.3, use + :attr:`Request.host`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 .. method:: Request.get_selector() Return the selector --- the part of the URL that is sent to the server. + Deprecated in 3.3, use :attr:`Request.selector`. + .. deprecated:: 3.3 .. method:: Request.get_header(header_name, default=None) @@ -460,21 +524,22 @@ request. .. method:: Request.set_proxy(host, type) - Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The *host* and *type* will - replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original - URL given in the constructor. - - .. method:: Request.get_origin_req_host() - Return the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by :rfc:`2965`. - See the documentation for the :class:`Request` constructor. + Return the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by + :rfc:`2965`. See the documentation for the :class:`Request` constructor. + Deprecated in 3.3, use :attr:`Request.origin_req_host`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 .. method:: Request.is_unverifiable() Return whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by RFC 2965. See the - documentation for the :class:`Request` constructor. + documentation for the :class:`Request` constructor. Deprecated in 3.3, use + :attr:`Request.unverifiable`. + + .. deprecated:: 3.3 .. _opener-director-objects: @@ -1138,16 +1203,14 @@ The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module ``urllib`` (as opposed to ``urllib2``). They might become deprecated at some point in the future. - .. function:: urlretrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None) - Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file, if necessary. If the URL - points to a local file, or a valid cached copy of the object exists, the object - is not copied. Return a tuple ``(filename, headers)`` where *filename* is the + Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL + points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied. + Return a tuple ``(filename, headers)`` where *filename* is the local file name under which the object can be found, and *headers* is whatever the :meth:`info` method of the object returned by :func:`urlopen` returned (for - a remote object, possibly cached). Exceptions are the same as for - :func:`urlopen`. + a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for :func:`urlopen`. The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third @@ -1158,6 +1221,13 @@ some point in the future. third argument may be ``-1`` on older FTP servers which do not return a file size in response to a retrieval request. + The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:: + + >>> import urllib.request + >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/') + >>> html = open(local_filename) + >>> html.close() + If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data* argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request type is ``GET``). The *data* argument must be a bytes object in standard @@ -1170,20 +1240,20 @@ some point in the future. the download is interrupted. The *Content-Length* is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data to read, - :func:`urlretrieve` reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises - the exception. + urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises the + exception. You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the :attr:`content` attribute of the exception instance. - If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, :func:`urlretrieve` can not check - the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case - you just have to assume that the download was successful. + If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size + of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you just have + to assume that the download was successful. .. function:: urlcleanup() - Clear the cache that may have been built up by previous calls to - :func:`urlretrieve`. + Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous + calls to :func:`urlretrieve`. .. class:: URLopener(proxies=None, **x509) @@ -1207,7 +1277,7 @@ some point in the future. *key_file* and *cert_file* are supported to provide an SSL key and certificate; both are needed to support client authentication. - :class:`URLopener` objects will raise an :exc:`IOError` exception if the server + :class:`URLopener` objects will raise an :exc:`OSError` exception if the server returns an error code. .. method:: open(fullurl, data=None) diff --git a/Doc/library/venv.rst b/Doc/library/venv.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2499962 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/library/venv.rst @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ +:mod:`venv` --- Creation of virtual environments +================================================ + +.. module:: venv + :synopsis: Creation of virtual environments. +.. moduleauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@yahoo.co.uk> +.. sectionauthor:: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip@yahoo.co.uk> + + +.. index:: pair: Environments; virtual + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +**Source code:** :source:`Lib/venv.py` + +-------------- + +The :mod:`venv` module provides support for creating lightweight "virtual +environments" with their own site directories, optionally isolated from system +site directories. Each virtual environment has its own Python binary (allowing +creation of environments with various Python versions) and can have its own +independent set of installed Python packages in its site directories. + + +Creating virtual environments +----------------------------- + +.. include:: /using/venv-create.inc + + +.. _venv-def: + +.. note:: A virtual environment (also called a ``venv``) is a Python + environment such that the Python interpreter, libraries and scripts + installed into it are isolated from those installed in other virtual + environments, and (by default) any libraries installed in a "system" Python, + i.e. one which is installed as part of your operating system. + + A venv is a directory tree which contains Python executable files and + other files which indicate that it is a venv. + + Common installation tools such as ``Distribute`` and ``pip`` work as + expected with venvs - i.e. when a venv is active, they install Python + packages into the venv without needing to be told to do so explicitly. + Of course, you need to install them into the venv first: this could be + done by running ``distribute_setup.py`` with the venv activated, + followed by running ``easy_install pip``. Alternatively, you could download + the source tarballs and run ``python setup.py install`` after unpacking, + with the venv activated. + + When a venv is active (i.e. the venv's Python interpreter is running), the + attributes :attr:`sys.prefix` and :attr:`sys.exec_prefix` point to the base + directory of the venv, whereas :attr:`sys.base_prefix` and + :attr:`sys.base_exec_prefix` point to the non-venv Python installation + which was used to create the venv. If a venv is not active, then + :attr:`sys.prefix` is the same as :attr:`sys.base_prefix` and + :attr:`sys.exec_prefix` is the same as :attr:`sys.base_exec_prefix` (they + all point to a non-venv Python installation). + + +API +--- + +.. highlight:: python + +The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which provides +mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to customize environment +creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class. + +.. class:: EnvBuilder(system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False, upgrade=False) + + The :class:`EnvBuilder` class accepts the following keyword arguments on + instantiation: + + * ``system_site_packages`` -- a Boolean value indicating that the system Python + site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to ``False``). + + * ``clear`` -- a Boolean value which, if True, will delete any existing target + directory instead of raising an exception (defaults to ``False``). + + * ``symlinks`` -- a Boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the + Python binary (and any necessary DLLs or other binaries, + e.g. ``pythonw.exe``), rather than copying. Defaults to ``True`` on Linux and + Unix systems, but ``False`` on Windows. + + * ``upgrade`` -- a Boolean value which, if True, will upgrade an existing + environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been + upgraded in-place (defaults to ``False``). + + + + Creators of third-party virtual environment tools will be free to use the + provided ``EnvBuilder`` class as a base class. + + The returned env-builder is an object which has a method, ``create``: + + .. method:: create(env_dir) + + This method takes as required argument the path (absolute or relative to + the current directory) of the target directory which is to contain the + virtual environment. The ``create`` method will either create the + environment in the specified directory, or raise an appropriate + exception. + + The ``create`` method of the ``EnvBuilder`` class illustrates the hooks + available for subclass customization:: + + def create(self, env_dir): + """ + Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory. + env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in. + """ + env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir) + context = self.create_directories(env_dir) + self.create_configuration(context) + self.setup_python(context) + self.setup_scripts(context) + self.post_setup(context) + + Each of the methods :meth:`create_directories`, + :meth:`create_configuration`, :meth:`setup_python`, + :meth:`setup_scripts` and :meth:`post_setup` can be overridden. + + .. method:: create_directories(env_dir) + + Creates the environment directory and all necessary directories, and + returns a context object. This is just a holder for attributes (such as + paths), for use by the other methods. + + .. method:: create_configuration(context) + + Creates the ``pyvenv.cfg`` configuration file in the environment. + + .. method:: setup_python(context) + + Creates a copy of the Python executable (and, under Windows, DLLs) in + the environment. + + .. method:: setup_scripts(context) + + Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into the virtual + environment. + + .. method:: post_setup(context) + + A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party + implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual environment or + perform other post-creation steps. + + In addition, :class:`EnvBuilder` provides this utility method that can be + called from :meth:`setup_scripts` or :meth:`post_setup` in subclasses to + assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment. + + .. method:: install_scripts(context, path) + + *path* is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories + "common", "posix", "nt", each containing scripts destined for the bin + directory in the environment. The contents of "common" and the + directory corresponding to :data:`os.name` are copied after some text + replacement of placeholders: + + * ``__VENV_DIR__`` is replaced with the absolute path of the environment + directory. + + * ``__VENV_NAME__`` is replaced with the environment name (final path + segment of environment directory). + + * ``__VENV_BIN_NAME__`` is replaced with the name of the bin directory + (either ``bin`` or ``Scripts``). + + * ``__VENV_PYTHON__`` is replaced with the absolute path of the + environment's executable. + + +There is also a module-level convenience function: + +.. function:: create(env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False) + + Create an :class:`EnvBuilder` with the given keyword arguments, and call its + :meth:`~EnvBuilder.create` method with the *env_dir* argument. diff --git a/Doc/library/warnings.rst b/Doc/library/warnings.rst index 8af19a2..8387f5a 100644 --- a/Doc/library/warnings.rst +++ b/Doc/library/warnings.rst @@ -339,8 +339,7 @@ Available Functions Write a warning to a file. The default implementation calls ``formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)`` and writes the resulting string to *file*, which defaults to ``sys.stderr``. You may replace - this function with an alternative implementation by assigning to - ``warnings.showwarning``. + this function with any callable by assigning to ``warnings.showwarning``. *line* is a line of source code to be included in the warning message; if *line* is not supplied, :func:`showwarning` will try to read the line specified by *filename* and *lineno*. diff --git a/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst b/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst index b2dcf8f..9c2b3ab 100644 --- a/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst +++ b/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst @@ -98,47 +98,55 @@ A number of browser types are predefined. This table gives the type names that may be passed to the :func:`get` function and the corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in this module. -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| Type Name | Class Name | Notes | -+=======================+=========================================+=======+ -| ``'mozilla'`` | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'firefox'`` | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'netscape'`` | :class:`Mozilla('netscape')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'galeon'`` | :class:`Galeon('galeon')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'epiphany'`` | :class:`Galeon('epiphany')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'skipstone'`` | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('skipstone')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'kfmclient'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'konqueror'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'kfm'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'mosaic'`` | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('mosaic')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'opera'`` | :class:`Opera()` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'grail'`` | :class:`Grail()` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'links'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('links')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'elinks'`` | :class:`Elinks('elinks')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'lynx'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('lynx')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'w3m'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('w3m')` | | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'windows-default'`` | :class:`WindowsDefault` | \(2) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'macosx'`` | :class:`MacOSX('default')` | \(3) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ -| ``'safari'`` | :class:`MacOSX('safari')` | \(3) | -+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| Type Name | Class Name | Notes | ++========================+=========================================+=======+ +| ``'mozilla'`` | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'firefox'`` | :class:`Mozilla('mozilla')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'netscape'`` | :class:`Mozilla('netscape')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'galeon'`` | :class:`Galeon('galeon')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'epiphany'`` | :class:`Galeon('epiphany')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'skipstone'`` | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('skipstone')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'kfmclient'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'konqueror'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'kfm'`` | :class:`Konqueror()` | \(1) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'mosaic'`` | :class:`BackgroundBrowser('mosaic')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'opera'`` | :class:`Opera()` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'grail'`` | :class:`Grail()` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'links'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('links')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'elinks'`` | :class:`Elinks('elinks')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'lynx'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('lynx')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'w3m'`` | :class:`GenericBrowser('w3m')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'windows-default'`` | :class:`WindowsDefault` | \(2) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'macosx'`` | :class:`MacOSX('default')` | \(3) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'safari'`` | :class:`MacOSX('safari')` | \(3) | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'google-chrome'`` | :class:`Chrome('google-chrome')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'chrome'`` | :class:`Chrome('chrome')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'chromium'`` | :class:`Chromium('chromium')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ +| ``'chromium-browser'`` | :class:`Chromium('chromium-browser')` | | ++------------------------+-----------------------------------------+-------+ Notes: @@ -155,12 +163,15 @@ Notes: (3) Only on Mac OS X platform. +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added. + Here are some simple examples:: - url = 'http://www.python.org/' + url = 'http://docs.python.org/' # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open. - webbrowser.open_new_tab(url + 'doc/') + webbrowser.open_new_tab(url) # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible. webbrowser.open_new(url) diff --git a/Doc/library/winreg.rst b/Doc/library/winreg.rst index e49b51b..a878da2 100644 --- a/Doc/library/winreg.rst +++ b/Doc/library/winreg.rst @@ -38,7 +38,11 @@ This module offers the following functions: *key* is the predefined handle to connect to. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, a - :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised. + :exc:`OSError` exception is raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. function:: CreateKey(key, sub_key) @@ -57,7 +61,11 @@ This module offers the following functions: If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, a - :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised. + :exc:`OSError` exception is raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. function:: CreateKeyEx(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_ALL_ACCESS) @@ -82,10 +90,14 @@ This module offers the following functions: If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, a - :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised. + :exc:`OSError` exception is raised. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. function:: DeleteKey(key, sub_key) @@ -100,7 +112,11 @@ This module offers the following functions: *This method can not delete keys with subkeys.* If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed. - If the method fails, a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised. + If the method fails, a :exc:`OSError` exception is raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. function:: DeleteKeyEx(key, sub_key, access=KEY_ALL_ACCESS, reserved=0) @@ -129,12 +145,16 @@ This module offers the following functions: *This method can not delete keys with subkeys.* If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is - removed. If the method fails, a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised. + removed. If the method fails, a :exc:`OSError` exception is raised. On unsupported Windows versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` is raised. .. versionadded:: 3.2 + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. function:: DeleteValue(key, value) @@ -156,9 +176,13 @@ This module offers the following functions: *index* is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve. The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is - typically called repeatedly until a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is + typically called repeatedly until a :exc:`OSError` exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. function:: EnumValue(key, index) @@ -170,7 +194,7 @@ This module offers the following functions: *index* is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve. The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is - typically called repeatedly, until a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is + typically called repeatedly, until a :exc:`OSError` exception is raised, indicating no more values. The result is a tuple of 3 items: @@ -189,6 +213,10 @@ This module offers the following functions: | | :meth:`SetValueEx`) | +-------+--------------------------------------------+ + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. + .. function:: ExpandEnvironmentStrings(str) @@ -260,9 +288,14 @@ This module offers the following functions: The result is a new handle to the specified key. - If the function fails, :exc:`WindowsError` is raised. + If the function fails, :exc:`OSError` is raised. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.2 + Allow the use of named arguments. - .. versionchanged:: 3.2 Allow the use of named arguments. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This function used to raise a :exc:`WindowsError`, which is now an + alias of :exc:`OSError`. .. function:: OpenKeyEx() diff --git a/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst b/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst index 1fd3451..1cef2e9 100644 --- a/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst +++ b/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst @@ -609,6 +609,9 @@ input, output, and error streams. as :class:`BaseCGIHandler` and :class:`CGIHandler`) that are not HTTP origin servers. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The term "Python" is replaced with implementation specific term like + "CPython", "Jython" etc. .. method:: BaseHandler.get_scheme() diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst b/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst index ae286b0..a5c6fb2 100644 --- a/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst +++ b/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst @@ -147,12 +147,7 @@ module documentation. This section lists the differences between the API and the DOM node. With an explicit *encoding* [1]_ argument, the result is a byte - string in the specified encoding. It is recommended that you - always specify an encoding; you may use any encoding you like, but - an argument of "utf-8" is the most common choice, avoiding - :exc:`UnicodeError` exceptions in case of unrepresentable text - data. - + string in the specified encoding. With no *encoding* argument, the result is a Unicode string, and the XML declaration in the resulting string does not specify an encoding. Encoding this string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst b/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst index c5c8802..16bb00c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst +++ b/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst @@ -5,49 +5,321 @@ :synopsis: Implementation of the ElementTree API. .. moduleauthor:: Fredrik Lundh <fredrik@pythonware.com> -**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py` +The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module implements a simple and efficient API +for parsing and creating XML data. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + This module will use a fast implementation whenever available. + The :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` module is deprecated. + +Tutorial +-------- + +This is a short tutorial for using :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` (``ET`` in +short). The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and basic +concepts of the module. + +XML tree and elements +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way to +represent it is with a tree. ``ET`` has two classes for this purpose - +:class:`ElementTree` represents the whole XML document as a tree, and +:class:`Element` represents a single node in this tree. Interactions with +the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually done +on the :class:`ElementTree` level. Interactions with a single XML element +and its sub-elements are done on the :class:`Element` level. + +.. _elementtree-parsing-xml: + +Parsing XML +^^^^^^^^^^^ + +We'll be using the following XML document as the sample data for this section: + +.. code-block:: xml + + <?xml version="1.0"?> + <data> + <country name="Liechtenstein"> + <rank>1</rank> + <year>2008</year> + <gdppc>141100</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/> + <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/> + </country> + <country name="Singapore"> + <rank>4</rank> + <year>2011</year> + <gdppc>59900</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/> + </country> + <country name="Panama"> + <rank>68</rank> + <year>2011</year> + <gdppc>13600</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/> + <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/> + </country> + </data> + +We can import this data by reading from a file:: + + import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET + tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml') + root = tree.getroot() + +Or directly from a string:: + + root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string) + +:func:`fromstring` parses XML from a string directly into an :class:`Element`, +which is the root element of the parsed tree. Other parsing functions may +create an :class:`ElementTree`. Check the documentation to be sure. + +As an :class:`Element`, ``root`` has a tag and a dictionary of attributes:: + + >>> root.tag + 'data' + >>> root.attrib + {} + +It also has children nodes over which we can iterate:: + + >>> for child in root: + ... print(child.tag, child.attrib) + ... + country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'} + country {'name': 'Singapore'} + country {'name': 'Panama'} + +Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index:: + + >>> root[0][1].text + '2008' + +Finding interesting elements +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +:class:`Element` has some useful methods that help iterate recursively over all +the sub-tree below it (its children, their children, and so on). For example, +:meth:`Element.iter`:: + + >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'): + ... print(neighbor.attrib) + ... + {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'} + {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'} + {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'} + {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'} + {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'} + +:meth:`Element.findall` finds only elements with a tag which are direct +children of the current element. :meth:`Element.find` finds the *first* child +with a particular tag, and :meth:`Element.text` accesses the element's text +content. :meth:`Element.get` accesses the element's attributes:: + + >>> for country in root.findall('country'): + ... rank = country.find('rank').text + ... name = country.get('name') + ... print(name, rank) + ... + Liechtenstein 1 + Singapore 4 + Panama 68 + +More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is possible by +using :ref:`XPath <elementtree-xpath>`. + +Modifying an XML File +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +:class:`ElementTree` provides a simple way to build XML documents and write them to files. +The :meth:`ElementTree.write` method serves this purpose. + +Once created, an :class:`Element` object may be manipulated by directly changing +its fields (such as :attr:`Element.text`), adding and modifying attributes +(:meth:`Element.set` method), as well as adding new children (for example +with :meth:`Element.append`). + +Let's say we want to add one to each country's rank, and add an ``updated`` +attribute to the rank element:: + + >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'): + ... new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1 + ... rank.text = str(new_rank) + ... rank.set('updated', 'yes') + ... + >>> tree.write('output.xml') + +Our XML now looks like this: + +.. code-block:: xml + + <?xml version="1.0"?> + <data> + <country name="Liechtenstein"> + <rank updated="yes">2</rank> + <year>2008</year> + <gdppc>141100</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/> + <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/> + </country> + <country name="Singapore"> + <rank updated="yes">5</rank> + <year>2011</year> + <gdppc>59900</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/> + </country> + <country name="Panama"> + <rank updated="yes">69</rank> + <year>2011</year> + <gdppc>13600</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/> + <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/> + </country> + </data> + +We can remove elements using :meth:`Element.remove`. Let's say we want to +remove all countries with a rank higher than 50:: + + >>> for country in root.findall('country'): + ... rank = int(country.find('rank').text) + ... if rank > 50: + ... root.remove(country) + ... + >>> tree.write('output.xml') + +Our XML now looks like this: + +.. code-block:: xml + + <?xml version="1.0"?> + <data> + <country name="Liechtenstein"> + <rank updated="yes">2</rank> + <year>2008</year> + <gdppc>141100</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/> + <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/> + </country> + <country name="Singapore"> + <rank updated="yes">5</rank> + <year>2011</year> + <gdppc>59900</gdppc> + <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/> + </country> + </data> + +Building XML documents +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The :func:`SubElement` function also provides a convenient way to create new +sub-elements for a given element:: + + >>> a = ET.Element('a') + >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b') + >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c') + >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd') + >>> ET.dump(a) + <a><b /><c><d /></c></a> + +Additional resources +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ --------------- - -The :class:`Element` type is a flexible container object, designed to store -hierarchical data structures in memory. The type can be described as a cross -between a list and a dictionary. - -Each element has a number of properties associated with it: - -* a tag which is a string identifying what kind of data this element represents - (the element type, in other words). - -* a number of attributes, stored in a Python dictionary. - -* a text string. - -* an optional tail string. - -* a number of child elements, stored in a Python sequence - -To create an element instance, use the :class:`Element` constructor or the -:func:`SubElement` factory function. - -The :class:`ElementTree` class can be used to wrap an element structure, and -convert it from and to XML. +See http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm for tutorials and links to other +docs. -A C implementation of this API is available as :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree`. -See http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm for tutorials and links to other -docs. Fredrik Lundh's page is also the location of the development version of -the xml.etree.ElementTree. +.. _elementtree-xpath: -.. versionchanged:: 3.2 - The ElementTree API is updated to 1.3. For more information, see - `Introducing ElementTree 1.3 - <http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm>`_. +XPath support +------------- +This module provides limited support for +`XPath expressions <http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath>`_ for locating elements in a +tree. The goal is to support a small subset of the abbreviated syntax; a full +XPath engine is outside the scope of the module. + +Example +^^^^^^^ + +Here's an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of the +module. We'll be using the ``countrydata`` XML document from the +:ref:`Parsing XML <elementtree-parsing-xml>` section:: + + import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET + + root = ET.fromstring(countrydata) + + # Top-level elements + root.findall(".") + + # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level + # elements + root.findall("./country/neighbor") + + # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child + root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']") + + # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore' + root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year") + + # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent + root.findall(".//neighbor[2]") + +Supported XPath syntax +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| Syntax | Meaning | ++=======================+======================================================+ +| ``tag`` | Selects all child elements with the given tag. | +| | For example, ``spam`` selects all child elements | +| | named ``spam``, ``spam/egg`` selects all | +| | grandchildren named ``egg`` in all children named | +| | ``spam``. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``*`` | Selects all child elements. For example, ``*/egg`` | +| | selects all grandchildren named ``egg``. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``.`` | Selects the current node. This is mostly useful | +| | at the beginning of the path, to indicate that it's | +| | a relative path. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``//`` | Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the | +| | current element. For example, ``.//egg`` selects | +| | all ``egg`` elements in the entire tree. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``..`` | Selects the parent element. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``[@attrib]`` | Selects all elements that have the given attribute. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``[@attrib='value']`` | Selects all elements for which the given attribute | +| | has the given value. The value cannot contain | +| | quotes. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``[tag]`` | Selects all elements that have a child named | +| | ``tag``. Only immediate children are supported. | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ +| ``[position]`` | Selects all elements that are located at the given | +| | position. The position can be either an integer | +| | (1 is the first position), the expression ``last()`` | +| | (for the last position), or a position relative to | +| | the last position (e.g. ``last()-1``). | ++-----------------------+------------------------------------------------------+ + +Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a tag +name, an asterisk, or another predicate. ``position`` predicates must be +preceded by a tag name. + +Reference +--------- .. _elementtree-functions: Functions ---------- +^^^^^^^^^ .. function:: Comment(text=None) @@ -198,8 +470,7 @@ Functions .. _elementtree-element-objects: Element Objects ---------------- - +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. class:: Element(tag, attrib={}, **extra) @@ -281,36 +552,43 @@ Element Objects .. method:: append(subelement) - Adds the element *subelement* to the end of this elements internal list - of subelements. + Adds the element *subelement* to the end of this element's internal list + of subelements. Raises :exc:`TypeError` if *subelement* is not an + :class:`Element`. .. method:: extend(subelements) Appends *subelements* from a sequence object with zero or more elements. - Raises :exc:`AssertionError` if a subelement is not a valid object. + Raises :exc:`TypeError` if a subelement is not an :class:`Element`. .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. method:: find(match) + .. method:: find(match, namespaces=None) Finds the first subelement matching *match*. *match* may be a tag name - or path. Returns an element instance or ``None``. + or a :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`. Returns an element instance + or ``None``. *namespaces* is an optional mapping from namespace prefix + to full name. - .. method:: findall(match) + .. method:: findall(match, namespaces=None) - Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or path. Returns a list - containing all matching elements in document order. + Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or + :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`. Returns a list containing all matching + elements in document order. *namespaces* is an optional mapping from + namespace prefix to full name. - .. method:: findtext(match, default=None) + .. method:: findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None) Finds text for the first subelement matching *match*. *match* may be - a tag name or path. Returns the text content of the first matching - element, or *default* if no element was found. Note that if the matching - element has no text content an empty string is returned. + a tag name or a :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`. Returns the text content + of the first matching element, or *default* if no element was found. + Note that if the matching element has no text content an empty string + is returned. *namespaces* is an optional mapping from namespace prefix + to full name. .. method:: getchildren() @@ -325,9 +603,10 @@ Element Objects Use method :meth:`Element.iter` instead. - .. method:: insert(index, element) + .. method:: insert(index, subelement) - Inserts a subelement at the given position in this element. + Inserts *subelement* at the given position in this element. Raises + :exc:`TypeError` if *subelement* is not an :class:`Element`. .. method:: iter(tag=None) @@ -341,10 +620,13 @@ Element Objects .. versionadded:: 3.2 - .. method:: iterfind(match) + .. method:: iterfind(match, namespaces=None) + + Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or + :ref:`path <elementtree-xpath>`. Returns an iterable yielding all + matching elements in document order. *namespaces* is an optional mapping + from namespace prefix to full name. - Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or path. Returns an iterable - yielding all matching elements in document order. .. versionadded:: 3.2 @@ -389,7 +671,7 @@ Element Objects .. _elementtree-elementtree-objects: ElementTree Objects -------------------- +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. class:: ElementTree(element=None, file=None) @@ -409,28 +691,19 @@ ElementTree Objects care. *element* is an element instance. - .. method:: find(match) + .. method:: find(match, namespaces=None) - Finds the first toplevel element matching *match*. *match* may be a tag - name or path. Same as getroot().find(match). Returns the first matching - element, or ``None`` if no element was found. + Same as :meth:`Element.find`, starting at the root of the tree. - .. method:: findall(match) + .. method:: findall(match, namespaces=None) - Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or path. Same as - getroot().findall(match). *match* may be a tag name or path. Returns a - list containing all matching elements, in document order. + Same as :meth:`Element.findall`, starting at the root of the tree. - .. method:: findtext(match, default=None) + .. method:: findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None) - Finds the element text for the first toplevel element with given tag. - Same as getroot().findtext(match). *match* may be a tag name or path. - *default* is the value to return if the element was not found. Returns - the text content of the first matching element, or the default value no - element was found. Note that if the element is found, but has no text - content, this method returns an empty string. + Same as :meth:`Element.findtext`, starting at the root of the tree. .. method:: getiterator(tag=None) @@ -451,11 +724,9 @@ ElementTree Objects to look for (default is to return all elements) - .. method:: iterfind(match) + .. method:: iterfind(match, namespaces=None) - Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or path. Same as - getroot().iterfind(match). Returns an iterable yielding all matching - elements in document order. + Same as :meth:`Element.iterfind`, starting at the root of the tree. .. versionadded:: 3.2 @@ -464,20 +735,29 @@ ElementTree Objects Loads an external XML section into this element tree. *source* is a file name or :term:`file object`. *parser* is an optional parser instance. - If not given, the standard XMLParser parser is used. Returns the section - root element. + If not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser` parser is used. Returns the + section root element. - .. method:: write(file, encoding="us-ascii", xml_declaration=None, method="xml") + .. method:: write(file, encoding="us-ascii", xml_declaration=None, \ + method="xml") Writes the element tree to a file, as XML. *file* is a file name, or a - :term:`file object` opened for writing. *encoding* [1]_ is the output encoding - (default is US-ASCII). Use ``encoding="unicode"`` to write a Unicode string. - *xml_declaration* controls if an XML declaration - should be added to the file. Use False for never, True for always, None - for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default is None). *method* is - either ``"xml"``, ``"html"`` or ``"text"`` (default is ``"xml"``). - Returns an (optionally) encoded string. + :term:`file object` opened for writing. *encoding* [1]_ is the output + encoding (default is US-ASCII). + *xml_declaration* controls if an XML declaration should be added to the + file. Use ``False`` for never, ``True`` for always, ``None`` + for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default is ``None``). + *method* is either ``"xml"``, ``"html"`` or ``"text"`` (default is + ``"xml"``). + + The output is either a string (:class:`str`) or binary (:class:`bytes`). + This is controlled by the *encoding* argument. If *encoding* is + ``"unicode"``, the output is a string; otherwise, it's binary. Note that + this may conflict with the type of *file* if it's an open + :term:`file object`; make sure you do not try to write a string to a + binary stream and vice versa. + This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated:: @@ -510,7 +790,7 @@ Example of changing the attribute "target" of every link in first paragraph:: .. _elementtree-qname-objects: QName Objects -------------- +^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. class:: QName(text_or_uri, tag=None) @@ -526,7 +806,7 @@ QName Objects .. _elementtree-treebuilder-objects: TreeBuilder Objects -------------------- +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. class:: TreeBuilder(element_factory=None) @@ -534,9 +814,9 @@ TreeBuilder Objects Generic element structure builder. This builder converts a sequence of start, data, and end method calls to a well-formed element structure. You can use this class to build an element structure using a custom XML parser, - or a parser for some other XML-like format. The *element_factory* is called - to create new :class:`Element` instances when given. - + or a parser for some other XML-like format. *element_factory*, when given, + must be a callable accepting two positional arguments: a tag and + a dict of attributes. It is expected to return a new element instance. .. method:: close() @@ -577,7 +857,7 @@ TreeBuilder Objects .. _elementtree-xmlparser-objects: XMLParser Objects ------------------ +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. class:: XMLParser(html=0, target=None, encoding=None) @@ -585,9 +865,9 @@ XMLParser Objects :class:`Element` structure builder for XML source data, based on the expat parser. *html* are predefined HTML entities. This flag is not supported by the current implementation. *target* is the target object. If omitted, the - builder uses an instance of the standard TreeBuilder class. *encoding* [1]_ - is optional. If given, the value overrides the encoding specified in the - XML file. + builder uses an instance of the standard :class:`TreeBuilder` class. + *encoding* [1]_ is optional. If given, the value overrides the encoding + specified in the XML file. .. method:: close() @@ -645,6 +925,24 @@ This is an example of counting the maximum depth of an XML file:: >>> parser.close() 4 +Exceptions +^^^^^^^^^^ + +.. class:: ParseError + + XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this module when + parsing fails. The string representation of an instance of this exception + will contain a user-friendly error message. In addition, it will have + the following attributes available: + + .. attribute:: code + + A numeric error code from the expat parser. See the documentation of + :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` for the list of error codes and their meanings. + + .. attribute:: position + + A tuple of *line*, *column* numbers, specifying where the error occurred. .. rubric:: Footnotes diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst b/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst index ff36fd8..0a4038c 100644 --- a/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst +++ b/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst @@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ or as base classes. tags, if set to *True* they are emitted as a single self-closed tag. .. versionadded:: 3.2 - short_empty_elements + The *short_empty_elements* parameter. .. class:: XMLFilterBase(base) diff --git a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst index e72770a..1871c99 100644 --- a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst +++ b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ .. XXX Not everything is documented yet. It might be good to describe - Marshaller, Unmarshaller, getparser, dumps, loads, and Transport. + Marshaller, Unmarshaller, getparser and Transport. **Source code:** :source:`Lib/xmlrpc/client.py` @@ -21,7 +21,12 @@ supports writing XML-RPC client code; it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. -.. class:: ServerProxy(uri, transport=None, encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False, use_datetime=False) +.. class:: ServerProxy(uri, transport=None, encoding=None, verbose=False, \ + allow_none=False, use_datetime=False, \ + use_builtin_types=False) + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *use_builtin_types* flag was added. A :class:`ServerProxy` instance is an object that manages communication with a remote XML-RPC server. The required first argument is a URI (Uniform Resource @@ -34,9 +39,13 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. XML; the default behaviour is for ``None`` to raise a :exc:`TypeError`. This is a commonly-used extension to the XML-RPC specification, but isn't supported by all clients and servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php for a - description. The *use_datetime* flag can be used to cause date/time values to - be presented as :class:`datetime.datetime` objects; this is false by default. - :class:`datetime.datetime` objects may be passed to calls. + description. The *use_builtin_types* flag can be used to cause date/time values + to be presented as :class:`datetime.datetime` objects and binary data to be + presented as :class:`bytes` objects; this flag is false by default. + :class:`datetime.datetime` and :class:`bytes` objects may be passed to calls. + + The obsolete *use_datetime* flag is similar to *use_builtin_types* but it + applies only to date/time values. Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP Basic Authentication: ``http://user:pass@host:port/path``. The ``user:pass`` @@ -78,12 +87,12 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. | | only their *__dict__* attribute is | | | transmitted. | +---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+ - | :const:`dates` | in seconds since the epoch (pass in an | - | | instance of the :class:`DateTime` class) or | + | :const:`dates` | In seconds since the epoch. Pass in an | + | | instance of the :class:`DateTime` class or | | | a :class:`datetime.datetime` instance. | +---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+ - | :const:`binary data` | pass in an instance of the :class:`Binary` | - | | wrapper class | + | :const:`binary data` | Pass in an instance of the :class:`Binary` | + | | wrapper class or a :class:`bytes` instance. | +---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+ This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method calls may also @@ -98,8 +107,9 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. ensure that the string is free of characters that aren't allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC - request that isn't well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary strings via - XML-RPC, use the :class:`Binary` wrapper class described below. + request that isn't well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary bytes + via XML-RPC, use the :class:`bytes` class or the class:`Binary` wrapper class + described below. :class:`Server` is retained as an alias for :class:`ServerProxy` for backwards compatibility. New code should use :class:`ServerProxy`. @@ -249,7 +259,7 @@ The client code for the preceding server:: Binary Objects -------------- -This class may be initialized from string data (which may include NULs). The +This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include NULs). The primary access to the content of a :class:`Binary` object is provided by an attribute: @@ -257,15 +267,15 @@ attribute: .. attribute:: Binary.data The binary data encapsulated by the :class:`Binary` instance. The data is - provided as an 8-bit string. + provided as a :class:`bytes` object. :class:`Binary` objects have the following methods, supported mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code: -.. method:: Binary.decode(string) +.. method:: Binary.decode(bytes) - Accept a base64 string and decode it as the instance's new data. + Accept a base64 :class:`bytes` object and decode it as the instance's new data. .. method:: Binary.encode(out) @@ -471,14 +481,21 @@ Convenience Functions it via an extension, provide a true value for *allow_none*. -.. function:: loads(data, use_datetime=False) +.. function:: loads(data, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False) Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a ``(params, methodname)``. *params* is a tuple of argument; *methodname* is a string, or ``None`` if no method name is present in the packet. If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition, this function will raise a :exc:`Fault` exception. - The *use_datetime* flag can be used to cause date/time values to be presented as - :class:`datetime.datetime` objects; this is false by default. + The *use_builtin_types* flag can be used to cause date/time values to be + presented as :class:`datetime.datetime` objects and binary data to be + presented as :class:`bytes` objects; this flag is false by default. + + The obsolete *use_datetime* flag is similar to *use_builtin_types* but it + applies only to date/time values. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *use_builtin_types* flag was added. .. _xmlrpc-client-example: diff --git a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst index 67feba6..6493fd4 100644 --- a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst +++ b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst @@ -16,7 +16,9 @@ servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using :class:`CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler`. -.. class:: SimpleXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True) +.. class:: SimpleXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\ + logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None,\ + bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=False) Create a new server instance. This class provides methods for registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC protocol. The *requestHandler* @@ -25,18 +27,31 @@ servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using are passed to the :class:`socketserver.TCPServer` constructor. If *logRequests* is true (the default), requests will be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging. The *allow_none* and *encoding* parameters are passed - on to :mod:`xmlrpc.client` and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned + on to :mod:`xmlrpc.client` and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server. The *bind_and_activate* parameter controls whether :meth:`server_bind` and :meth:`server_activate` are called immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true. Setting it to false allows code to manipulate the *allow_reuse_address* class variable before the address is bound. + The *use_builtin_types* parameter is passed to the + :func:`~xmlrpc.client.loads` function and controls which types are processed + when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *use_builtin_types* flag was added. -.. class:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler(allow_none=False, encoding=None) + +.. class:: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler(allow_none=False, encoding=None,\ + use_builtin_types=False) Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment. The *allow_none* and *encoding* parameters are passed on to :mod:`xmlrpc.client` and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server. + The *use_builtin_types* parameter is passed to the + :func:`~xmlrpc.client.loads` function and controls which types are processed + when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *use_builtin_types* flag was added. .. class:: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler() @@ -233,12 +248,17 @@ to HTTP GET requests. Servers can either be free standing, using :class:`DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler`. -.. class:: DocXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True) +.. class:: DocXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler,\ + logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None,\ + bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=True) Create a new server instance. All parameters have the same meaning as for :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`; *requestHandler* defaults to :class:`DocXMLRPCRequestHandler`. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The *use_builtin_types* flag was added. + .. class:: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler() diff --git a/Doc/library/zipfile.rst b/Doc/library/zipfile.rst index 48edf1f..498a9cd 100644 --- a/Doc/library/zipfile.rst +++ b/Doc/library/zipfile.rst @@ -87,7 +87,30 @@ The module defines the following items: .. data:: ZIP_DEFLATED The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method. This requires the - zlib module. No other compression methods are currently supported. + zlib module. + + +.. data:: ZIP_BZIP2 + + The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method. This requires the + bz2 module. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + +.. data:: ZIP_LZMA + + The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method. This requires the + lzma module. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. note:: + + The ZIP file format specification has included support for bzip2 compression + since 2001, and for LZMA compression since 2006. However, some tools + (including older Python releases) do not support these compression + methods, and may either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether, + or fail to extract individual files. .. seealso:: @@ -118,9 +141,11 @@ ZipFile Objects adding a ZIP archive to another file (such as :file:`python.exe`). If *mode* is ``a`` and the file does not exist at all, it is created. *compression* is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the archive, - and should be :const:`ZIP_STORED` or :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`; unrecognized - values will cause :exc:`RuntimeError` to be raised. If :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED` - is specified but the :mod:`zlib` module is not available, :exc:`RuntimeError` + and should be :const:`ZIP_STORED`, :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`, + :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` or :const:`ZIP_LZMA`; unrecognized + values will cause :exc:`RuntimeError` to be raised. If :const:`ZIP_DEFLATED`, + :const:`ZIP_BZIP2` or :const:`ZIP_LZMA` is specified but the corresponded module + (:mod:`zlib`, :mod:`bz2` or :mod:`lzma`) is not available, :exc:`RuntimeError` is also raised. The default is :const:`ZIP_STORED`. If *allowZip64* is ``True`` zipfile will create ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than 2 GB. If it is false (the default) :mod:`zipfile` @@ -143,6 +168,9 @@ ZipFile Objects .. versionadded:: 3.2 Added the ability to use :class:`ZipFile` as a context manager. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added support for :mod:`bzip2` and :mod:`lzma` compression. + .. method:: ZipFile.close() diff --git a/Doc/library/zipimport.rst b/Doc/library/zipimport.rst index 4f17092..b47c35b 100644 --- a/Doc/library/zipimport.rst +++ b/Doc/library/zipimport.rst @@ -85,9 +85,12 @@ zipimporter Objects .. method:: get_data(pathname) - Return the data associated with *pathname*. Raise :exc:`IOError` if the + Return the data associated with *pathname*. Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file wasn't found. + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + :exc:`IOError` used to be raised instead of :exc:`OSError`. + .. method:: get_filename(fullname) diff --git a/Doc/library/zlib.rst b/Doc/library/zlib.rst index 897d919..42535a0 100644 --- a/Doc/library/zlib.rst +++ b/Doc/library/zlib.rst @@ -58,12 +58,37 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are: exception if any error occurs. -.. function:: compressobj([level]) +.. function:: compressobj(level=-1, method=DEFLATED, wbits=15, memlevel=8, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict]) Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data streams that won't - fit into memory at once. *level* is an integer from ``1`` to ``9`` controlling - the level of compression; ``1`` is fastest and produces the least compression, - ``9`` is slowest and produces the most. The default value is ``6``. + fit into memory at once. + + *level* is the compression level -- an integer from ``1`` to ``9``. A value + of ``1`` is fastest and produces the least compression, while a value of + ``9`` is slowest and produces the most. The default value is ``6``. + + *method* is the compression algorithm. Currently, the only supported value is + ``DEFLATED``. + + *wbits* is the base two logarithm of the size of the window buffer. This + should be an integer from ``8`` to ``15``. Higher values give better + compression, but use more memory. + + *memlevel* controls the amount of memory used for internal compression state. + Valid values range from ``1`` to ``9``. Higher values using more memory, + but are faster and produce smaller output. + + *strategy* is used to tune the compression algorithm. Possible values are + ``Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY``, ``Z_FILTERED``, and ``Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY``. + + *zdict* is a predefined compression dictionary. This is a sequence of bytes + (such as a :class:`bytes` object) containing subsequences that are expected + to occur frequently in the data that is to be compressed. Those subsequences + that are expected to be most common should come at the end of the dictionary. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *method*, *wbits*, *memlevel*, *strategy* and *zdict* + parameters. .. function:: crc32(data[, value]) @@ -82,12 +107,13 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are: Always returns an unsigned 32-bit integer. -.. note:: - To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and - platforms use crc32(data) & 0xffffffff. If you are only using - the checksum in packed binary format this is not necessary as the - return value is the correct 32bit binary representation - regardless of sign. + .. note:: + + To generate the same numeric value across all Python versions and + platforms, use ``crc32(data) & 0xffffffff``. If you are only using + the checksum in packed binary format this is not necessary as the + return value is the correct 32-bit binary representation + regardless of sign. .. function:: decompress(data[, wbits[, bufsize]]) @@ -114,11 +140,26 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are: to :c:func:`malloc`. The default size is 16384. -.. function:: decompressobj([wbits]) +.. function:: decompressobj(wbits=15[, zdict]) Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data streams that - won't fit into memory at once. The *wbits* parameter controls the size of the - window buffer. + won't fit into memory at once. + + The *wbits* parameter controls the size of the window buffer. + + The *zdict* parameter specifies a predefined compression dictionary. If + provided, this must be the same dictionary as was used by the compressor that + produced the data that is to be decompressed. + + .. note:: + + If *zdict* is a mutable object (such as a :class:`bytearray`), you must not + modify its contents between the call to :func:`decompressobj` and the first + call to the decompressor's ``decompress()`` method. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added the *zdict* parameter. + Compression objects support the following methods: @@ -150,7 +191,7 @@ Compression objects support the following methods: compress a set of data that share a common initial prefix. -Decompression objects support the following methods, and two attributes: +Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes: .. attribute:: Decompress.unused_data @@ -160,13 +201,6 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods, and two attributes: available. If the whole bytestring turned out to contain compressed data, this is ``b""``, an empty bytes object. - The only way to determine where a bytestring of compressed data ends is by actually - decompressing it. This means that when compressed data is contained part of a - larger file, you can only find the end of it by reading data and feeding it - followed by some non-empty bytestring into a decompression object's - :meth:`decompress` method until the :attr:`unused_data` attribute is no longer - empty. - .. attribute:: Decompress.unconsumed_tail @@ -177,6 +211,17 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods, and two attributes: :meth:`decompress` method call in order to get correct output. +.. attribute:: Decompress.eof + + A boolean indicating whether the end of the compressed data stream has been + reached. + + This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly-formed compressed + stream, and an incomplete or truncated one. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. method:: Decompress.decompress(data[, max_length]) Decompress *data*, returning a bytes object containing the uncompressed data @@ -211,6 +256,24 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods, and two attributes: seeks into the stream at a future point. +Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available through +the following constants: + + +.. data:: ZLIB_VERSION + + The version string of the zlib library that was used for building the module. + This may be different from the zlib library actually used at runtime, which + is available as :const:`ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION`. + + +.. data:: ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION + + The version string of the zlib library actually loaded by the interpreter. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + + .. seealso:: Module :mod:`gzip` diff --git a/Doc/license.rst b/Doc/license.rst index cb20c83..b47b7cc 100644 --- a/Doc/license.rst +++ b/Doc/license.rst @@ -120,6 +120,8 @@ been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. +----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+ | 3.2.3 | 3.2.2 | 2012 | PSF | yes | +----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+ +| 3.3.0 | 3.2 | 2012 | PSF | yes | ++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+ .. note:: diff --git a/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst b/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst index 2ddb852..1c8c190 100644 --- a/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst +++ b/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst @@ -35,12 +35,19 @@ represented by objects.) Every object has an identity, a type and a value. An object's *identity* never changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object's address in memory. The ':keyword:`is`' operator compares the identity of two objects; the -:func:`id` function returns an integer representing its identity (currently -implemented as its address). An object's :dfn:`type` is also unchangeable. [#]_ +:func:`id` function returns an integer representing its identity. + +.. impl-detail:: + + For CPython, ``id(x)`` is the memory address where ``x`` is stored. + An object's type determines the operations that the object supports (e.g., "does it have a length?") and also defines the possible values for objects of that type. The :func:`type` function returns an object's type (which is an object -itself). The *value* of some objects can change. Objects whose value can +itself). Like its identity, an object's :dfn:`type` is also unchangeable. +[#]_ + +The *value* of some objects can change. Objects whose value can change are said to be *mutable*; objects whose value is unchangeable once they are created are called *immutable*. (The value of an immutable container object that contains a reference to a mutable object can change when the latter's value @@ -276,16 +283,16 @@ Sequences single: integer single: Unicode - The items of a string object are Unicode code units. A Unicode code - unit is represented by a string object of one item and can hold either - a 16-bit or 32-bit value representing a Unicode ordinal (the maximum - value for the ordinal is given in ``sys.maxunicode``, and depends on - how Python is configured at compile time). Surrogate pairs may be - present in the Unicode object, and will be reported as two separate - items. The built-in functions :func:`chr` and :func:`ord` convert - between code units and nonnegative integers representing the Unicode - ordinals as defined in the Unicode Standard 3.0. Conversion from and to - other encodings are possible through the string method :meth:`encode`. + A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode codepoints. + All the codepoints in range ``U+0000 - U+10FFFF`` can be represented + in a string. Python doesn't have a :c:type:`chr` type, and + every character in the string is represented as a string object + with length ``1``. The built-in function :func:`ord` converts a + character to its codepoint (as an integer); :func:`chr` converts + an integer in range ``0 - 10FFFF`` to the corresponding character. + :meth:`str.encode` can be used to convert a :class:`str` to + :class:`bytes` using the given encoding, and :meth:`bytes.decode` can + be used to achieve the opposite. Tuples .. index:: @@ -448,6 +455,11 @@ Callable types +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+ | :attr:`__name__` | The function's name | Writable | +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+ + | :attr:`__qualname__` | The function's | Writable | + | | :term:`qualified name` | | + | | | | + | | .. versionadded:: 3.3 | | + +-------------------------+-------------------------------+-----------+ | :attr:`__module__` | The name of the module the | Writable | | | function was defined in, or | | | | ``None`` if unavailable. | | @@ -639,17 +651,20 @@ Modules statement: import object: module - Modules are imported by the :keyword:`import` statement (see section - :ref:`import`). A module object has a - namespace implemented by a dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced - by the __globals__ attribute of functions defined in the module). Attribute - references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ``m.x`` is - equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"]``. A module object does not contain the code - object used to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the - initialization is done). - - Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, e.g., ``m.x = - 1`` is equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"] = 1``. + Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by + the :ref:`import system <importsystem>` as invoked either by the + :keyword:`import` statement (see :keyword:`import`), or by calling + functions such as :func:`importlib.import_module` and built-in + :func:`__import__`. A module object has a namespace implemented by a + dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the ``__globals__`` + attribute of functions defined in the module). Attribute references are + translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ``m.x`` is equivalent to + ``m.__dict__["x"]``. A module object does not contain the code object used + to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization is + done). + + Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, e.g., + ``m.x = 1`` is equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"] = 1``. .. index:: single: __dict__ (module attribute) @@ -671,11 +686,12 @@ Modules Predefined (writable) attributes: :attr:`__name__` is the module's name; :attr:`__doc__` is the module's documentation string, or ``None`` if - unavailable; :attr:`__file__` is the pathname of the file from which the module - was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The :attr:`__file__` attribute is not - present for C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter; for - extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname - of the shared library file. + unavailable; :attr:`__file__` is the pathname of the file from which the + module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The :attr:`__file__` + attribute may be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules + that are statically linked into the interpreter; for extension modules + loaded dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname of the shared + library file. Custom classes Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section @@ -1250,10 +1266,10 @@ Basic customization immutable (if the object's hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash bucket). - User-defined classes have :meth:`__eq__` and :meth:`__hash__` methods by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves) - and ``x.__hash__()`` returns ``id(x)``. + and ``x.__hash__()`` returns an appropriate value such that ``x == y`` + implies both that ``x is y`` and ``hash(x) == hash(y)``. A class that overrides :meth:`__eq__` and does not define :meth:`__hash__` will have its :meth:`__hash__` implicitly set to ``None``. When the @@ -1272,7 +1288,27 @@ Basic customization a :exc:`TypeError` would be incorrectly identified as hashable by an ``isinstance(obj, collections.Hashable)`` call. - See also the :option:`-R` command-line option. + + .. note:: + + By default, the :meth:`__hash__` values of str, bytes and datetime + objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value. Although they + remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not + predictable between repeated invocations of Python. + + This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused + by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a + dict insertion, O(n^2) complexity. See + http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details. + + Changing hash values affects the iteration order of dicts, sets and + other mappings. Python has never made guarantees about this ordering + (and it typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds). + + See also :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Hash randomization is enabled by default. .. method:: object.__bool__(self) @@ -1353,7 +1389,8 @@ access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ``x.name``) for class instances. .. method:: object.__dir__(self) - Called when :func:`dir` is called on the object. A list must be returned. + Called when :func:`dir` is called on the object. A sequence must be + returned. :func:`dir` converts the returned sequence to a list and sorts it. .. _descriptors: @@ -1524,53 +1561,115 @@ Notes on using *__slots__* Customizing class creation -------------------------- -By default, classes are constructed using :func:`type`. A class definition is -read into a separate namespace and the value of class name is bound to the -result of ``type(name, bases, dict)``. +By default, classes are constructed using :func:`type`. The class body is +executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally to the +result of ``type(name, bases, namespace)``. + +The class creation process can be customised by passing the ``metaclass`` +keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an +existing class that included such an argument. In the following example, +both ``MyClass`` and ``MySubclass`` are instances of ``Meta``:: + + class Meta(type): + pass + + class MyClass(metaclass=Meta): + pass + + class MySubclass(MyClass): + pass -When the class definition is read, if a callable ``metaclass`` keyword argument -is passed after the bases in the class definition, the callable given will be -called instead of :func:`type`. If other keyword arguments are passed, they -will also be passed to the metaclass. This allows classes or functions to be -written which monitor or alter the class creation process: +Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition are +passed through to all metaclass operations described below. -* Modifying the class dictionary prior to the class being created. +When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur: -* Returning an instance of another class -- essentially performing the role of a - factory function. +* the appropriate metaclass is determined +* the class namespace is prepared +* the class body is executed +* the class object is created -These steps will have to be performed in the metaclass's :meth:`__new__` method --- :meth:`type.__new__` can then be called from this method to create a class -with different properties. This example adds a new element to the class -dictionary before creating the class:: +Determining the appropriate metaclass +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - class metacls(type): - def __new__(mcs, name, bases, dict): - dict['foo'] = 'metacls was here' - return type.__new__(mcs, name, bases, dict) +The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as follows: -You can of course also override other class methods (or add new methods); for -example defining a custom :meth:`__call__` method in the metaclass allows custom -behavior when the class is called, e.g. not always creating a new instance. +* if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then :func:`type` is used +* if an explicit metaclass is given and it is *not* an instance of + :func:`type`, then it is used directly as the metaclass +* if an instance of :func:`type` is given as the explicit metaclass, or + bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is used -If the metaclass has a :meth:`__prepare__` attribute (usually implemented as a -class or static method), it is called before the class body is evaluated with -the name of the class and a tuple of its bases for arguments. It should return -an object that supports the mapping interface that will be used to store the -namespace of the class. The default is a plain dictionary. This could be used, -for example, to keep track of the order that class attributes are declared in by -returning an ordered dictionary. +The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified +metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e. ``type(cls)``) of all specified +base classes. The most derived metaclass is one which is a subtype of *all* +of these candidate metaclasses. If none of the candidate metaclasses meets +that criterion, then the class definition will fail with ``TypeError``. -The appropriate metaclass is determined by the following precedence rules: -* If the ``metaclass`` keyword argument is passed with the bases, it is used. +Preparing the class namespace +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class namespace +is prepared. If the metaclass has a ``__prepare__`` attribute, it is called +as ``namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)`` (where the +additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class definition). + +If the metaclass has no ``__prepare__`` attribute, then the class namespace +is initialised as an empty :func:`dict` instance. + +.. seealso:: + + :pep:`3115` - Metaclasses in Python 3000 + Introduced the ``__prepare__`` namespace hook + + +Executing the class body +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The class body is executed (approximately) as +``exec(body, globals(), namespace)``. The key difference from a normal +call to :func:`exec` is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including +any methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the +class definition occurs inside a function. + +However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function, methods +defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the class scope. +Class variables must be accessed through the first parameter of instance or +class methods, and cannot be accessed at all from static methods. + + +Creating the class object +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body, +the class object is created by calling +``metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds)`` (the additional keywords +passed here are the same as those passed to ``__prepare__``). + +This class object is the one that will be referenced by the zero-argument +form of :func:`super`. ``__class__`` is an implicit closure reference +created by the compiler if any methods in a class body refer to either +``__class__`` or ``super``. This allows the zero argument form of +:func:`super` to correctly identify the class being defined based on +lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was used to make the +current call is identified based on the first argument passed to the method. + +After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators +included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is bound +in the local namespace as the defined class. + +.. seealso:: + + :pep:`3135` - New super + Describes the implicit ``__class__`` closure reference -* Otherwise, if there is at least one base class, its metaclass is used. -* Otherwise, the default metaclass (:class:`type`) is used. +Metaclass example +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless. Some ideas that have been -explored including logging, interface checking, automatic delegation, automatic +explored include logging, interface checking, automatic delegation, automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and automatic resource locking/synchronization. @@ -1583,9 +1682,9 @@ to remember the order that class members were defined:: def __prepare__(metacls, name, bases, **kwds): return collections.OrderedDict() - def __new__(cls, name, bases, classdict): - result = type.__new__(cls, name, bases, dict(classdict)) - result.members = tuple(classdict) + def __new__(cls, name, bases, namespace, **kwds): + result = type.__new__(cls, name, bases, dict(namespace)) + result.members = tuple(namespace) return result class A(metaclass=OrderedClass): diff --git a/Doc/reference/expressions.rst b/Doc/reference/expressions.rst index 72ad95e..a5f3766 100644 --- a/Doc/reference/expressions.rst +++ b/Doc/reference/expressions.rst @@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ Yield expressions .. productionlist:: yield_atom: "(" `yield_expression` ")" - yield_expression: "yield" [`expression_list`] + yield_expression: "yield" [`expression_list` | "from" `expression`] The :keyword:`yield` expression is only used when defining a generator function, and can only be used in the body of a function definition. Using a @@ -336,7 +336,10 @@ the internal evaluation stack. When the execution is resumed by calling one of the generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the :keyword:`yield` expression was just another external call. The value of the :keyword:`yield` expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed -the execution. +the execution. If :meth:`__next__` is used (typically via either a +:keyword:`for` or the :func:`next` builtin) then the result is :const:`None`, +otherwise, if :meth:`send` is used, then the result will be the value passed +in to that method. .. index:: single: coroutine @@ -346,12 +349,32 @@ suspended. The only difference is that a generator function cannot control where should the execution continue after it yields; the control is always transferred to the generator's caller. -The :keyword:`yield` statement is allowed in the :keyword:`try` clause of a +:keyword:`yield` expressions are allowed in the :keyword:`try` clause of a :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` construct. If the generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by being garbage collected), the generator-iterator's :meth:`close` method will be called, allowing any pending :keyword:`finally` clauses to execute. +When ``yield from <expr>`` is used, it treats the supplied expression as +a subiterator. All values produced by that subiterator are passed directly +to the caller of the current generator's methods. Any values passed in with +:meth:`send` and any exceptions passed in with :meth:`throw` are passed to +the underlying iterator if it has the appropriate methods. If this is not the +case, then :meth:`send` will raise :exc:`AttributeError` or :exc:`TypeError`, +while :meth:`throw` will just raise the passed in exception immediately. + +When the underlying iterator is complete, the :attr:`~StopIteration.value` +attribute of the raised :exc:`StopIteration` instance becomes the value of +the yield expression. It can be either set explicitly when raising +:exc:`StopIteration`, or automatically when the sub-iterator is a generator +(by returning a value from the sub-generator). + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added ``yield from <expr>`` to delegate control flow to a subiterator + +The parentheses can be omitted when the :keyword:`yield` expression is the +sole expression on the right hand side of an assignment statement. + .. index:: object: generator @@ -451,6 +474,10 @@ generator functions:: The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making them usable as simple coroutines. + :pep:`0380` - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator + The proposal to introduce the :token:`yield_from` syntax, making delegation + to sub-generators easy. + .. _primaries: diff --git a/Doc/reference/import.rst b/Doc/reference/import.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4688e78 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/reference/import.rst @@ -0,0 +1,697 @@ + +.. _importsystem: + +***************** +The import system +***************** + +.. index:: single: import machinery + +Python code in one :term:`module` gains access to the code in another module +by the process of :term:`importing` it. The :keyword:`import` statement is +the most common way of invoking the import machinery, but it is not the only +way. Functions such as :func:`importlib.import_module` and built-in +:func:`__import__` can also be used to invoke the import machinery. + +The :keyword:`import` statement combines two operations; it searches for the +named module, then it binds the results of that search to a name in the local +scope. The search operation of the :keyword:`import` statement is defined as +a call to the :func:`__import__` function, with the appropriate arguments. +The return value of :func:`__import__` is used to perform the name +binding operation of the :keyword:`import` statement. See the +:keyword:`import` statement for the exact details of that name binding +operation. + +A direct call to :func:`__import__` performs only the module search and, if +found, the module creation operation. While certain side-effects may occur, +such as the importing of parent packages, and the updating of various caches +(including :data:`sys.modules`), only the :keyword:`import` statement performs +a name binding operation. + +When calling :func:`__import__` as part of an import statement, the +import system first checks the module global namespace for a function by +that name. If it is not found, then the standard builtin :func:`__import__` +is called. Other mechanisms for invoking the import system (such as +:func:`importlib.import_module`) do not perform this check and will always +use the standard import system. + +When a module is first imported, Python searches for the module and if found, +it creates a module object [#fnmo]_, initializing it. If the named module +cannot be found, an :exc:`ImportError` is raised. Python implements various +strategies to search for the named module when the import machinery is +invoked. These strategies can be modified and extended by using various hooks +described in the sections below. + +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + The import system has been updated to fully implement the second phase + of PEP 302. There is no longer any implicit import machinery - the full + import system is exposed through :data:`sys.meta_path`. In addition, + native namespace package support has been implemented (see PEP 420). + + +:mod:`importlib` +================ + +The :mod:`importlib` module provides a rich API for interacting with the +import system. For example :func:`importlib.import_module` provides a +recommended, simpler API than built-in :func:`__import__` for invoking the +import machinery. Refer to the :mod:`importlib` library documentation for +additional detail. + + + +Packages +======== + +.. index:: + single: package + +Python has only one type of module object, and all modules are of this type, +regardless of whether the module is implemented in Python, C, or something +else. To help organize modules and provide a naming hierarchy, Python has a +concept of :term:`packages <package>`. + +You can think of packages as the directories on a file system and modules as +files within directories, but don't take this analogy too literally since +packages and modules need not originate from the file system. For the +purposes of this documentation, we'll use this convenient analogy of +directories and files. Like file system directories, packages are organized +hierarchically, and packages may themselves contain subpackages, as well as +regular modules. + +It's important to keep in mind that all packages are modules, but not all +modules are packages. Or put another way, packages are just a special kind of +module. Specifically, any module that contains a ``__path__`` attribute is +considered a package. + +All modules have a name. Subpackage names are separated from their parent +package name by dots, akin to Python's standard attribute access syntax. Thus +you might have a module called :mod:`sys` and a package called :mod:`email`, +which in turn has a subpackage called :mod:`email.mime` and a module within +that subpackage called :mod:`email.mime.text`. + + +Regular packages +---------------- + +.. index:: + pair: package; regular + +Python defines two types of packages, :term:`regular packages <regular +package>` and :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>`. Regular +packages are traditional packages as they existed in Python 3.2 and earlier. +A regular package is typically implemented as a directory containing an +``__init__.py`` file. When a regular package is imported, this +``__init__.py`` file is implicitly executed, and the objects it defines are +bound to names in the package's namespace. The ``__init__.py`` file can +contain the same Python code that any other module can contain, and Python +will add some additional attributes to the module when it is imported. + +For example, the following file system layout defines a top level ``parent`` +package with three subpackages:: + + parent/ + __init__.py + one/ + __init__.py + two/ + __init__.py + three/ + __init__.py + +Importing ``parent.one`` will implicitly execute ``parent/__init__.py`` and +``parent/one/__init__.py``. Subsequent imports of ``parent.two`` or +``parent.three`` will execute ``parent/two/__init__.py`` and +``parent/three/__init__.py`` respectively. + + +Namespace packages +------------------ + +.. index:: + pair:: package; namespace + pair:: package; portion + +A namespace package is a composite of various :term:`portions <portion>`, +where each portion contributes a subpackage to the parent package. Portions +may reside in different locations on the file system. Portions may also be +found in zip files, on the network, or anywhere else that Python searches +during import. Namespace packages may or may not correspond directly to +objects on the file system; they may be virtual modules that have no concrete +representation. + +Namespace packages do not use an ordinary list for their ``__path__`` +attribute. They instead use a custom iterable type which will automatically +perform a new search for package portions on the next import attempt within +that package if the path of their parent package (or :data:`sys.path` for a +top level package) changes. + +With namespace packages, there is no ``parent/__init__.py`` file. In fact, +there may be multiple ``parent`` directories found during import search, where +each one is provided by a different portion. Thus ``parent/one`` may not be +physically located next to ``parent/two``. In this case, Python will create a +namespace package for the top-level ``parent`` package whenever it or one of +its subpackages is imported. + +See also :pep:`420` for the namespace package specification. + + +Searching +========= + +To begin the search, Python needs the :term:`fully qualified <qualified name>` +name of the module (or package, but for the purposes of this discussion, the +difference is immaterial) being imported. This name may come from various +arguments to the :keyword:`import` statement, or from the parameters to the +:func:`importlib.import_module` or :func:`__import__` functions. + +This name will be used in various phases of the import search, and it may be +the dotted path to a submodule, e.g. ``foo.bar.baz``. In this case, Python +first tries to import ``foo``, then ``foo.bar``, and finally ``foo.bar.baz``. +If any of the intermediate imports fail, an :exc:`ImportError` is raised. + + +The module cache +---------------- + +.. index:: + single: sys.modules + +The first place checked during import search is :data:`sys.modules`. This +mapping serves as a cache of all modules that have been previously imported, +including the intermediate paths. So if ``foo.bar.baz`` was previously +imported, :data:`sys.modules` will contain entries for ``foo``, ``foo.bar``, +and ``foo.bar.baz``. Each key will have as its value the corresponding module +object. + +During import, the module name is looked up in :data:`sys.modules` and if +present, the associated value is the module satisfying the import, and the +process completes. However, if the value is ``None``, then an +:exc:`ImportError` is raised. If the module name is missing, Python will +continue searching for the module. + +:data:`sys.modules` is writable. Deleting a key may not destroy the +associated module (as other modules may hold references to it), +but it will invalidate the cache entry for the named module, causing +Python to search anew for the named module upon its next +import. The key can also be assigned to ``None``, forcing the next import +of the module to result in an :exc:`ImportError`. + +Beware though, as if you keep a reference to the module object, +invalidate its cache entry in :data:`sys.modules`, and then re-import the +named module, the two module objects will *not* be the same. By contrast, +:func:`imp.reload` will reuse the *same* module object, and simply +reinitialise the module contents by rerunning the module's code. + + +Finders and loaders +------------------- + +.. index:: + single: finder + single: loader + +If the named module is not found in :data:`sys.modules`, then Python's import +protocol is invoked to find and load the module. This protocol consists of +two conceptual objects, :term:`finders <finder>` and :term:`loaders <loader>`. +A finder's job is to determine whether it can find the named module using +whatever strategy it knows about. Objects that implement both of these +interfaces are referred to as :term:`importers <importer>` - they return +themselves when they find that they can load the requested module. + +Python includes a number of default finders and importers. One +knows how to locate frozen modules, and another knows how to locate +built-in modules. A third default finder searches an :term:`import path` +for modules. The :term:`import path` is a list of locations that may +name file system paths or zip files. It can also be extended to search +for any locatable resource, such as those identified by URLs. + +The import machinery is extensible, so new finders can be added to extend the +range and scope of module searching. + +Finders do not actually load modules. If they can find the named module, they +return a :term:`loader`, which the import machinery then invokes to load the +module and create the corresponding module object. + +The following sections describe the protocol for finders and loaders in more +detail, including how you can create and register new ones to extend the +import machinery. + + +Import hooks +------------ + +.. index:: + single: import hooks + single: meta hooks + single: path hooks + pair: hooks; import + pair: hooks; meta + pair: hooks; path + +The import machinery is designed to be extensible; the primary mechanism for +this are the *import hooks*. There are two types of import hooks: *meta +hooks* and *import path hooks*. + +Meta hooks are called at the start of import processing, before any other +import processing has occurred, other than :data:`sys.modules` cache look up. +This allows meta hooks to override :data:`sys.path` processing, frozen +modules, or even built-in modules. Meta hooks are registered by adding new +finder objects to :data:`sys.meta_path`, as described below. + +Import path hooks are called as part of :data:`sys.path` (or +``package.__path__``) processing, at the point where their associated path +item is encountered. Import path hooks are registered by adding new callables +to :data:`sys.path_hooks` as described below. + + +The meta path +------------- + +.. index:: + single: sys.meta_path + pair: finder; find_module + pair: finder; find_loader + +When the named module is not found in :data:`sys.modules`, Python next +searches :data:`sys.meta_path`, which contains a list of meta path finder +objects. These finders are queried in order to see if they know how to handle +the named module. Meta path finders must implement a method called +:meth:`find_module()` which takes two arguments, a name and an import path. +The meta path finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can +handle the named module or not. + +If the meta path finder knows how to handle the named module, it returns a +loader object. If it cannot handle the named module, it returns ``None``. If +:data:`sys.meta_path` processing reaches the end of its list without returning +a loader, then an :exc:`ImportError` is raised. Any other exceptions raised +are simply propagated up, aborting the import process. + +The :meth:`find_module()` method of meta path finders is called with two +arguments. The first is the fully qualified name of the module being +imported, for example ``foo.bar.baz``. The second argument is the path +entries to use for the module search. For top-level modules, the second +argument is ``None``, but for submodules or subpackages, the second +argument is the value of the parent package's ``__path__`` attribute. If +the appropriate ``__path__`` attribute cannot be accessed, an +:exc:`ImportError` is raised. + +The meta path may be traversed multiple times for a single import request. +For example, assuming none of the modules involved has already been cached, +importing ``foo.bar.baz`` will first perform a top level import, calling +``mpf.find_module("foo", None)`` on each meta path finder (``mpf``). After +``foo`` has been imported, ``foo.bar`` will be imported by traversing the +meta path a second time, calling +``mpf.find_module("foo.bar", foo.__path__)``. Once ``foo.bar`` has been +imported, the final traversal will call +``mpf.find_module("foo.bar.baz", foo.bar.__path__)``. + +Some meta path finders only support top level imports. These importers will +always return ``None`` when anything other than ``None`` is passed as the +second argument. + +Python's default :data:`sys.meta_path` has three meta path finders, one that +knows how to import built-in modules, one that knows how to import frozen +modules, and one that knows how to import modules from an :term:`import path` +(i.e. the :term:`path based finder`). + + +Loaders +======= + +If and when a module loader is found its +:meth:`~importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` method is called, with a single +argument, the fully qualified name of the module being imported. This method +has several responsibilities, and should return the module object it has +loaded [#fnlo]_. If it cannot load the module, it should raise an +:exc:`ImportError`, although any other exception raised during +:meth:`load_module()` will be propagated. + +In many cases, the finder and loader can be the same object; in such cases the +:meth:`finder.find_module()` would just return ``self``. + +Loaders must satisfy the following requirements: + + * If there is an existing module object with the given name in + :data:`sys.modules`, the loader must use that existing module. (Otherwise, + :func:`imp.reload` will not work correctly.) If the named module does + not exist in :data:`sys.modules`, the loader must create a new module + object and add it to :data:`sys.modules`. + + Note that the module *must* exist in :data:`sys.modules` before the loader + executes the module code. This is crucial because the module code may + (directly or indirectly) import itself; adding it to :data:`sys.modules` + beforehand prevents unbounded recursion in the worst case and multiple + loading in the best. + + If loading fails, the loader must remove any modules it has inserted into + :data:`sys.modules`, but it must remove **only** the failing module, and + only if the loader itself has loaded it explicitly. Any module already in + the :data:`sys.modules` cache, and any module that was successfully loaded + as a side-effect, must remain in the cache. + + * The loader may set the ``__file__`` attribute of the module. If set, this + attribute's value must be a string. The loader may opt to leave + ``__file__`` unset if it has no semantic meaning (e.g. a module loaded from + a database). + + * The loader may set the ``__name__`` attribute of the module. While not + required, setting this attribute is highly recommended so that the + :meth:`repr()` of the module is more informative. + + * If the module is a package (either regular or namespace), the loader must + set the module object's ``__path__`` attribute. The value must be + iterable, but may be empty if ``__path__`` has no further significance + to the loader. If ``__path__`` is not empty, it must produce strings + when iterated over. More details on the semantics of ``__path__`` are + given :ref:`below <package-path-rules>`. + + * The ``__loader__`` attribute must be set to the loader object that loaded + the module. This is mostly for introspection and reloading, but can be + used for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting + data associated with a loader. + + * The module's ``__package__`` attribute should be set. Its value must be a + string, but it can be the same value as its ``__name__``. If the attribute + is set to ``None`` or is missing, the import system will fill it in with a + more appropriate value. When the module is a package, its ``__package__`` + value should be set to its ``__name__``. When the module is not a package, + ``__package__`` should be set to the empty string for top-level modules, or + for submodules, to the parent package's name. See :pep:`366` for further + details. + + This attribute is used instead of ``__name__`` to calculate explicit + relative imports for main modules, as defined in :pep:`366`. + + * If the module is a Python module (as opposed to a built-in module or a + dynamically loaded extension), the loader should execute the module's code + in the module's global name space (``module.__dict__``). + + +Module reprs +------------ + +By default, all modules have a usable repr, however depending on the +attributes set above, and hooks in the loader, you can more explicitly control +the repr of module objects. + +Loaders may implement a :meth:`module_repr()` method which takes a single +argument, the module object. When ``repr(module)`` is called for a module +with a loader supporting this protocol, whatever is returned from +``module.__loader__.module_repr(module)`` is returned as the module's repr +without further processing. This return value must be a string. + +If the module has no ``__loader__`` attribute, or the loader has no +:meth:`module_repr()` method, then the module object implementation itself +will craft a default repr using whatever information is available. It will +try to use the ``module.__name__``, ``module.__file__``, and +``module.__loader__`` as input into the repr, with defaults for whatever +information is missing. + +Here are the exact rules used: + + * If the module has a ``__loader__`` and that loader has a + :meth:`module_repr()` method, call it with a single argument, which is the + module object. The value returned is used as the module's repr. + + * If an exception occurs in :meth:`module_repr()`, the exception is caught + and discarded, and the calculation of the module's repr continues as if + :meth:`module_repr()` did not exist. + + * If the module has a ``__file__`` attribute, this is used as part of the + module's repr. + + * If the module has no ``__file__`` but does have a ``__loader__``, then the + loader's repr is used as part of the module's repr. + + * Otherwise, just use the module's ``__name__`` in the repr. + +This example, from :pep:`420` shows how a loader can craft its own module +repr:: + + class NamespaceLoader: + @classmethod + def module_repr(cls, module): + return "<module '{}' (namespace)>".format(module.__name__) + + +.. _package-path-rules: + +module.__path__ +--------------- + +By definition, if a module has an ``__path__`` attribute, it is a package, +regardless of its value. + +A package's ``__path__`` attribute is used during imports of its subpackages. +Within the import machinery, it functions much the same as :data:`sys.path`, +i.e. providing a list of locations to search for modules during import. +However, ``__path__`` is typically much more constrained than +:data:`sys.path`. + +``__path__`` must be an iterable of strings, but it may be empty. +The same rules used for :data:`sys.path` also apply to a package's +``__path__``, and :data:`sys.path_hooks` (described below) are +consulted when traversing a package's ``__path__``. + +A package's ``__init__.py`` file may set or alter the package's ``__path__`` +attribute, and this was typically the way namespace packages were implemented +prior to :pep:`420`. With the adoption of :pep:`420`, namespace packages no +longer need to supply ``__init__.py`` files containing only ``__path__`` +manipulation code; the namespace loader automatically sets ``__path__`` +correctly for the namespace package. + + +The Path Based Finder +===================== + +.. index:: + single: path based finder + +As mentioned previously, Python comes with several default meta path finders. +One of these, called the :term:`path based finder`, searches an :term:`import +path`, which contains a list of :term:`path entries <path entry>`. Each path +entry names a location to search for modules. + +The path based finder itself doesn't know how to import anything. Instead, it +traverses the individual path entries, associating each of them with a +path entry finder that knows how to handle that particular kind of path. + +The default set of path entry finders implement all the semantics for finding +modules on the file system, handling special file types such as Python source +code (``.py`` files), Python byte code (``.pyc`` and ``.pyo`` files) and +shared libraries (e.g. ``.so`` files). When supported by the :mod:`zipimport` +module in the standard library, the default path entry finders also handle +loading all of these file types (other than shared libraries) from zipfiles. + +Path entries need not be limited to file system locations. They can refer to +URLs, database queries, or any other location that can be specified as a +string. + +The path based finder provides additional hooks and protocols so that you +can extend and customize the types of searchable path entries. For example, +if you wanted to support path entries as network URLs, you could write a hook +that implements HTTP semantics to find modules on the web. This hook (a +callable) would return a :term:`path entry finder` supporting the protocol +described below, which was then used to get a loader for the module from the +web. + +A word of warning: this section and the previous both use the term *finder*, +distinguishing between them by using the terms :term:`meta path finder` and +:term:`path entry finder`. These two types of finders are very similar, +support similar protocols, and function in similar ways during the import +process, but it's important to keep in mind that they are subtly different. +In particular, meta path finders operate at the beginning of the import +process, as keyed off the :data:`sys.meta_path` traversal. + +By contrast, path entry finders are in a sense an implementation detail +of the path based finder, and in fact, if the path based finder were to be +removed from :data:`sys.meta_path`, none of the path entry finder semantics +would be invoked. + + +Path entry finders +------------------ + +.. index:: + single: sys.path + single: sys.path_hooks + single: sys.path_importer_cache + single: PYTHONPATH + +The :term:`path based finder` is responsible for finding and loading Python +modules and packages whose location is specified with a string :term:`path +entry`. Most path entries name locations in the file system, but they need +not be limited to this. + +As a meta path finder, the :term:`path based finder` implements the +:meth:`find_module()` protocol previously described, however it exposes +additional hooks that can be used to customize how modules are found and +loaded from the :term:`import path`. + +Three variables are used by the :term:`path based finder`, :data:`sys.path`, +:data:`sys.path_hooks` and :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`. The ``__path__`` +attributes on package objects are also used. These provide additional ways +that the import machinery can be customized. + +:data:`sys.path` contains a list of strings providing search locations for +modules and packages. It is initialized from the :data:`PYTHONPATH` +environment variable and various other installation- and +implementation-specific defaults. Entries in :data:`sys.path` can name +directories on the file system, zip files, and potentially other "locations" +(see the :mod:`site` module) that should be searched for modules, such as +URLs, or database queries. + +The :term:`path based finder` is a :term:`meta path finder`, so the import +machinery begins the :term:`import path` search by calling the path +based finder's :meth:`find_module()` method as described previously. When +the ``path`` argument to :meth:`find_module()` is given, it will be a +list of string paths to traverse - typically a package's ``__path__`` +attribute for an import within that package. If the ``path`` argument +is ``None``, this indicates a top level import and :data:`sys.path` is used. + +The path based finder iterates over every entry in the search path, and +for each of these, looks for an appropriate :term:`path entry finder` for the +path entry. Because this can be an expensive operation (e.g. there may be +`stat()` call overheads for this search), the path based finder maintains +a cache mapping path entries to path entry finders. This cache is maintained +in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` (despite the name, this cache actually +stores finder objects rather than being limited to :term:`importer` objects). +In this way, the expensive search for a particular :term:`path entry` +location's :term:`path entry finder` need only be done once. User code is +free to remove cache entries from :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` forcing +the path based finder to perform the path entry search again [#fnpic]_. + +If the path entry is not present in the cache, the path based finder iterates +over every callable in :data:`sys.path_hooks`. Each of the +:term:`path entry hooks <path entry hook>` in this list is called with a +single argument, the path entry to be searched. This callable may either +return a :term:`path entry finder` that can handle the path entry, or it may +raise :exc:`ImportError`. +An :exc:`ImportError` is used by the path based finder to signal that the hook +cannot find a :term:`path entry finder` for that :term:`path entry`. The +exception is ignored and :term:`import path` iteration continues. + +If :data:`sys.path_hooks` iteration ends with no :term:`path entry finder` +being returned, then the path based finder's :meth:`find_module()` method +will store ``None`` in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` (to indicate that +there is no finder for this path entry) and return ``None``, indicating that +this :term:`meta path finder` could not find the module. + +If a :term:`path entry finder` *is* returned by one of the :term:`path entry +hook` callables on :data:`sys.path_hooks`, then the following protocol is used +to ask the finder for a module loader, which is then used to load the module. + + +Path entry finder protocol +-------------------------- + +In order to support imports of modules and initialized packages and also to +contribute portions to namespace packages, path entry finders must implement +the :meth:`find_loader()` method. + +:meth:`find_loader()` takes one argument, the fully qualified name of the +module being imported. :meth:`find_loader()` returns a 2-tuple where the +first item is the loader and the second item is a namespace :term:`portion`. +When the first item (i.e. the loader) is ``None``, this means that while the +path entry finder does not have a loader for the named module, it knows that the +path entry contributes to a namespace portion for the named module. This will +almost always be the case where Python is asked to import a namespace package +that has no physical presence on the file system. When a path entry finder +returns ``None`` for the loader, the second item of the 2-tuple return value +must be a sequence, although it can be empty. + +If :meth:`find_loader()` returns a non-``None`` loader value, the portion is +ignored and the loader is returned from the path based finder, terminating +the search through the path entries. + +For backwards compatibility with other implementations of the import +protocol, many path entry finders also support the same, +traditional :meth:`find_module()` method that meta path finders support. +However path entry finder :meth:`find_module()` methods are never called +with a ``path`` argument (they are expected to record the appropriate +path information from the initial call to the path hook). + +The :meth:`find_module()` method on path entry finders is deprecated, +as it does not allow the path entry finder to contribute portions to +namespace packages. Instead path entry finders should implement the +:meth:`find_loader()` method as described above. If it exists on the path +entry finder, the import system will always call :meth:`find_loader()` +in preference to :meth:`find_module()`. + + +Replacing the standard import system +==================================== + +The most reliable mechanism for replacing the entire import system is to +delete the default contents of :data:`sys.meta_path`, replacing them +entirely with a custom meta path hook. + +If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements +without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then replacing +the builtin :func:`__import__` function may be sufficient. This technique +may also be employed at the module level to only alter the behaviour of +import statements within that module. + +To selectively prevent import of some modules from a hook early on the +meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system entirely), +it is sufficient to raise :exc:`ImportError` directly from +:meth:`find_module` instead of returning ``None``. The latter indicates +that the meta path search should continue. while raising an exception +terminates it immediately. + + +Open issues +=========== + +XXX It would be really nice to have a diagram. + +XXX * (import_machinery.rst) how about a section devoted just to the +attributes of modules and packages, perhaps expanding upon or supplanting the +related entries in the data model reference page? + +XXX runpy, pkgutil, et al in the library manual should all get "See Also" +links at the top pointing to the new import system section. + + +References +========== + +The import machinery has evolved considerably since Python's early days. The +original `specification for packages +<http://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages.html>`_ is still available to read, +although some details have changed since the writing of that document. + +The original specification for :data:`sys.meta_path` was :pep:`302`, with +subsequent extension in :pep:`420`. + +:pep:`420` introduced :term:`namespace packages <namespace package>` for +Python 3.3. :pep:`420` also introduced the :meth:`find_loader` protocol as an +alternative to :meth:`find_module`. + +:pep:`366` describes the addition of the ``__package__`` attribute for +explicit relative imports in main modules. + +:pep:`328` introduced absolute and explicit relative imports and initially +proposed ``__name__`` for semantics :pep:`366` would eventually specify for +``__package__``. + +:pep:`338` defines executing modules as scripts. + + +Footnotes +========= + +.. [#fnmo] See :class:`types.ModuleType`. + +.. [#fnlo] The importlib implementation avoids using the return value + directly. Instead, it gets the module object by looking the module name up + in :data:`sys.modules`. The indirect effect of this is that an imported + module may replace itself in :data:`sys.modules`. This is + implementation-specific behavior that is not guaranteed to work in other + Python implementations. + +.. [#fnpic] In legacy code, it is possible to find instances of + :class:`imp.NullImporter` in the :data:`sys.path_importer_cache`. It + is recommended that code be changed to use ``None`` instead. See + :ref:`portingpythoncode` for more details. diff --git a/Doc/reference/index.rst b/Doc/reference/index.rst index bd1a281..55f93d7 100644 --- a/Doc/reference/index.rst +++ b/Doc/reference/index.rst @@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ interfaces available to C/C++ programmers in detail. lexical_analysis.rst datamodel.rst executionmodel.rst + import.rst expressions.rst simple_stmts.rst compound_stmts.rst diff --git a/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst b/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst index 4b49738..bab39f9 100644 --- a/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst +++ b/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst @@ -401,7 +401,7 @@ String literals are described by the following lexical definitions: .. productionlist:: stringliteral: [`stringprefix`](`shortstring` | `longstring`) - stringprefix: "r" | "R" + stringprefix: "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" shortstring: "'" `shortstringitem`* "'" | '"' `shortstringitem`* '"' longstring: "'''" `longstringitem`* "'''" | '"""' `longstringitem`* '"""' shortstringitem: `shortstringchar` | `stringescapeseq` @@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ String literals are described by the following lexical definitions: .. productionlist:: bytesliteral: `bytesprefix`(`shortbytes` | `longbytes`) - bytesprefix: "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" + bytesprefix: "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB" shortbytes: "'" `shortbytesitem`* "'" | '"' `shortbytesitem`* '"' longbytes: "'''" `longbytesitem`* "'''" | '"""' `longbytesitem`* '"""' shortbytesitem: `shortbyteschar` | `bytesescapeseq` @@ -441,10 +441,24 @@ instance of the :class:`bytes` type instead of the :class:`str` type. They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escapes. +As of Python 3.3 it is possible again to prefix unicode strings with a +``u`` prefix to simplify maintenance of dual 2.x and 3.x codebases. + Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ``'r'`` or ``'R'``; such strings are called :dfn:`raw strings` and treat backslashes as literal characters. As a result, in string literals, ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'`` -escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. +escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. Given that Python 2.x's raw +unicode literals behave differently than Python 3.x's the ``'ur'`` syntax +is not supported. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + The ``'rb'`` prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym + of ``'br'``. + + .. versionadded:: 3.3 + Support for the unicode legacy literal (``u'value'``) was reintroduced + to simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases. + See :pep:`414` for more information. In triple-quoted strings, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the string. (A @@ -492,13 +506,13 @@ Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are: +-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+ | Escape Sequence | Meaning | Notes | +=================+=================================+=======+ -| ``\N{name}`` | Character named *name* in the | | +| ``\N{name}`` | Character named *name* in the | \(4) | | | Unicode database | | +-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+ -| ``\uxxxx`` | Character with 16-bit hex value | \(4) | +| ``\uxxxx`` | Character with 16-bit hex value | \(5) | | | *xxxx* | | +-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+ -| ``\Uxxxxxxxx`` | Character with 32-bit hex value | \(5) | +| ``\Uxxxxxxxx`` | Character with 32-bit hex value | \(6) | | | *xxxxxxxx* | | +-----------------+---------------------------------+-------+ @@ -516,10 +530,14 @@ Notes: with the given value. (4) + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Support for name aliases [#]_ has been added. + +(5) Individual code units which form parts of a surrogate pair can be encoded using this escape sequence. Exactly four hex digits are required. -(5) +(6) Any Unicode character can be encoded this way, but characters outside the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) will be encoded using a surrogate pair if Python is compiled to use 16-bit code units (the default). Exactly eight hex digits @@ -706,3 +724,8 @@ The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python. Their occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional error:: $ ? ` + + +.. rubric:: Footnotes + +.. [#] http://www.unicode.org/Public/6.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt diff --git a/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst b/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst index 73183d5..81dc748 100644 --- a/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst +++ b/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst @@ -424,10 +424,10 @@ When :keyword:`return` passes control out of a :keyword:`try` statement with a :keyword:`finally` clause, that :keyword:`finally` clause is executed before really leaving the function. -In a generator function, the :keyword:`return` statement is not allowed to -include an :token:`expression_list`. In that context, a bare :keyword:`return` -indicates that the generator is done and will cause :exc:`StopIteration` to be -raised. +In a generator function, the :keyword:`return` statement indicates that the +generator is done and will cause :exc:`StopIteration` to be raised. The returned +value (if any) is used as an argument to construct :exc:`StopIteration` and +becomes the :attr:`StopIteration.value` attribute. .. _yield: @@ -449,6 +449,7 @@ The :keyword:`yield` statement is only used when defining a generator function, and is only used in the body of the generator function. Using a :keyword:`yield` statement in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function instead of a normal function. + When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a generator iterator, or more commonly, a generator. The body of the generator function is executed by calling the :func:`next` function on the generator repeatedly until @@ -468,14 +469,28 @@ resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by being garbage collected), the generator-iterator's :meth:`close` method will be called, allowing any pending :keyword:`finally` clauses to execute. +When ``yield from <expr>`` is used, it treats the supplied expression as +a subiterator, producing values from it until the underlying iterator is +exhausted. + + .. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Added ``yield from <expr>`` to delegate control flow to a subiterator + +For full details of :keyword:`yield` semantics, refer to the :ref:`yieldexpr` +section. + .. seealso:: :pep:`0255` - Simple Generators The proposal for adding generators and the :keyword:`yield` statement to Python. :pep:`0342` - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators - The proposal that, among other generator enhancements, proposed allowing - :keyword:`yield` to appear inside a :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` block. + The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making them + usable as simple coroutines. + + :pep:`0380` - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator + The proposal to introduce the :token:`yield_from` syntax, making delegation + to sub-generators easy. .. _raise: @@ -645,161 +660,98 @@ The :keyword:`import` statement relative_module: "."* `module` | "."+ name: `identifier` -Import statements are executed in two steps: (1) find a module, and initialize -it if necessary; (2) define a name or names in the local namespace (of the scope -where the :keyword:`import` statement occurs). The statement comes in two -forms differing on whether it uses the :keyword:`from` keyword. The first form -(without :keyword:`from`) repeats these steps for each identifier in the list. -The form with :keyword:`from` performs step (1) once, and then performs step -(2) repeatedly. For a reference implementation of step (1), see the -:mod:`importlib` module. +The basic import statement (no :keyword:`from` clause) is executed in two +steps: -.. index:: - single: package +#. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary +#. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where + the :keyword:`import` statement occurs. -To understand how step (1) occurs, one must first understand how Python handles -hierarchical naming of modules. To help organize modules and provide a -hierarchy in naming, Python has a concept of packages. A package can contain -other packages and modules while modules cannot contain other modules or -packages. From a file system perspective, packages are directories and modules -are files. The original `specification for packages -<http://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages.html>`_ is still available to read, -although minor details have changed since the writing of that document. +When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by +commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just +as though the clauses had been separated out into individiual import +statements. -.. index:: - single: sys.modules +The details of the first step, finding and loading modules is described in +greater detail in the section on the :ref:`import system <importsystem>`, +which also describes the various types of packages and modules that can +be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to customize +the import system. Note that failures in this step may indicate either +that the module could not be located, *or* that an error occurred while +initializing the module, which includes execution of the module's code. -Once the name of the module is known (unless otherwise specified, the term -"module" will refer to both packages and modules), searching -for the module or package can begin. The first place checked is -:data:`sys.modules`, the cache of all modules that have been imported -previously. If the module is found there then it is used in step (2) of import -unless ``None`` is found in :data:`sys.modules`, in which case -:exc:`ImportError` is raised. +If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made +available in the local namespace in one of three ways: -.. index:: - single: sys.meta_path - single: finder - pair: finder; find_module - single: __path__ - -If the module is not found in the cache, then :data:`sys.meta_path` is searched -(the specification for :data:`sys.meta_path` can be found in :pep:`302`). -The object is a list of :term:`finder` objects which are queried in order as to -whether they know how to load the module by calling their :meth:`find_module` -method with the name of the module. If the module happens to be contained -within a package (as denoted by the existence of a dot in the name), then a -second argument to :meth:`find_module` is given as the value of the -:attr:`__path__` attribute from the parent package (everything up to the last -dot in the name of the module being imported). If a finder can find the module -it returns a :term:`loader` (discussed later) or returns ``None``. +* If the module name is followed by :keyword:`as`, then the name + following :keyword:`as` is bound directly to the imported module. +* If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a top + level module, the module's name is bound in the local namespace as a + reference to the imported module +* If the module being imported is *not* a top level module, then the name + of the top level package that contains the module is bound in the local + namespace as a reference to the top level package. The imported module + must be accessed using its full qualified name rather than directly -.. index:: - single: sys.path_hooks - single: sys.path_importer_cache - single: sys.path - -If none of the finders on :data:`sys.meta_path` are able to find the module -then some implicitly defined finders are queried. Implementations of Python -vary in what implicit meta path finders are defined. The one they all do -define, though, is one that handles :data:`sys.path_hooks`, -:data:`sys.path_importer_cache`, and :data:`sys.path`. - -The implicit finder searches for the requested module in the "paths" specified -in one of two places ("paths" do not have to be file system paths). If the -module being imported is supposed to be contained within a package then the -second argument passed to :meth:`find_module`, :attr:`__path__` on the parent -package, is used as the source of paths. If the module is not contained in a -package then :data:`sys.path` is used as the source of paths. - -Once the source of paths is chosen it is iterated over to find a finder that -can handle that path. The dict at :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` caches -finders for paths and is checked for a finder. If the path does not have a -finder cached then :data:`sys.path_hooks` is searched by calling each object in -the list with a single argument of the path, returning a finder or raises -:exc:`ImportError`. If a finder is returned then it is cached in -:data:`sys.path_importer_cache` and then used for that path entry. If no finder -can be found but the path exists then a value of ``None`` is -stored in :data:`sys.path_importer_cache` to signify that an implicit, -file-based finder that handles modules stored as individual files should be -used for that path. If the path does not exist then a finder which always -returns ``None`` is placed in the cache for the path. .. index:: - single: loader - pair: loader; load_module - exception: ImportError - -If no finder can find the module then :exc:`ImportError` is raised. Otherwise -some finder returned a loader whose :meth:`load_module` method is called with -the name of the module to load (see :pep:`302` for the original definition of -loaders). A loader has several responsibilities to perform on a module it -loads. First, if the module already exists in :data:`sys.modules` (a -possibility if the loader is called outside of the import machinery) then it -is to use that module for initialization and not a new module. But if the -module does not exist in :data:`sys.modules` then it is to be added to that -dict before initialization begins. If an error occurs during loading of the -module and it was added to :data:`sys.modules` it is to be removed from the -dict. If an error occurs but the module was already in :data:`sys.modules` it -is left in the dict. + pair: name; binding + keyword: from + exception: ImportError -.. index:: - single: __name__ - single: __file__ - single: __path__ - single: __package__ - single: __loader__ - -The loader must set several attributes on the module. :data:`__name__` is to be -set to the name of the module. :data:`__file__` is to be the "path" to the file -unless the module is built-in (and thus listed in -:data:`sys.builtin_module_names`) in which case the attribute is not set. -If what is being imported is a package then :data:`__path__` is to be set to a -list of paths to be searched when looking for modules and packages contained -within the package being imported. :data:`__package__` is optional but should -be set to the name of package that contains the module or package (the empty -string is used for module not contained in a package). :data:`__loader__` is -also optional but should be set to the loader object that is loading the -module. +The :keyword:`from` form uses a slightly more complex process: -.. index:: - exception: ImportError +#. find the module specified in the :keyword:`from` clause loading and + initializing it if necessary; +#. for each of the identifiers specified in the :keyword:`import` clauses: -If an error occurs during loading then the loader raises :exc:`ImportError` if -some other exception is not already being propagated. Otherwise the loader -returns the module that was loaded and initialized. + #. check if the imported module has an attribute by that name + #. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then + check the imported module again for that attribute + #. if the attribute is not found, :exc:`ImportError` is raised. + #. otherwise, a reference to that value is bound in the local namespace, + using the name in the :keyword:`as` clause if it is present, + otherwise using the attribute name -When step (1) finishes without raising an exception, step (2) can begin. +Examples:: -The first form of :keyword:`import` statement binds the module name in the local -namespace to the module object, and then goes on to import the next identifier, -if any. If the module name is followed by :keyword:`as`, the name following -:keyword:`as` is used as the local name for the module. + import foo # foo imported and bound locally + import foo.bar.baz # foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally + import foo.bar.baz as fbb # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as fbb + from foo.bar import baz # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as baz + from foo import attr # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr -.. index:: - pair: name; binding - exception: ImportError +If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (``'*'``), all public +names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the scope +where the :keyword:`import` statement occurs. -The :keyword:`from` form does not bind the module name: it goes through the list -of identifiers, looks each one of them up in the module found in step (1), and -binds the name in the local namespace to the object thus found. As with the -first form of :keyword:`import`, an alternate local name can be supplied by -specifying ":keyword:`as` localname". If a name is not found, -:exc:`ImportError` is raised. If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star -(``'*'``), all public names defined in the module are bound in the local -namespace of the :keyword:`import` statement. +.. index:: single: __all__ (optional module attribute) + +The *public names* defined by a module are determined by checking the module's +namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it must be a sequence +of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names +given in ``__all__`` are all considered public and are required to exist. If +``__all__`` is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found +in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character +(``'_'``). ``__all__`` should contain the entire public API. It is intended +to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as +library modules which were imported and used within the module). + +The :keyword:`from` form with ``*`` may only occur in a module scope. +Attempting to use it in class or function definitions will raise a +:exc:`SyntaxError`. .. index:: single: __all__ (optional module attribute) The *public names* defined by a module are determined by checking the module's -namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it must be a sequence of -strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names given in -``__all__`` are all considered public and are required to exist. If ``__all__`` -is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found in the module's -namespace which do not begin with an underscore character (``'_'``). -``__all__`` should contain the entire public API. It is intended to avoid -accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as library -modules which were imported and used within the module). +namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it must be a sequence +of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names +given in ``__all__`` are all considered public and are required to exist. If +``__all__`` is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found +in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character +(``'_'``). ``__all__`` should contain the entire public API. It is intended +to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as +library modules which were imported and used within the module). The :keyword:`from` form with ``*`` may only occur in a module scope. The wild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is only allowed at the module level. diff --git a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/indexsidebar.html b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/indexsidebar.html index 748cb91..2018011 100644 --- a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/indexsidebar.html +++ b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/indexsidebar.html @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <h3>Docs for other versions</h3> <ul> <li><a href="http://docs.python.org/2.7/">Python 2.7 (stable)</a></li> - <li><a href="http://docs.python.org/3.3/">Python 3.3 (in development)</a></li> + <li><a href="http://docs.python.org/3.2/">Python 3.2 (stable)</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/doc/versions/">Old versions</a></li> </ul> diff --git a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/patchlevel.py b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/patchlevel.py index b070d60..bca2eb8 100644 --- a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/patchlevel.py +++ b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/patchlevel.py @@ -34,8 +34,7 @@ def get_header_version_info(srcdir): release = version = '%s.%s' % (d['PY_MAJOR_VERSION'], d['PY_MINOR_VERSION']) micro = int(d['PY_MICRO_VERSION']) - if micro != 0: - release += '.' + str(micro) + release += '.' + str(micro) level = d['PY_RELEASE_LEVEL'] suffixes = { @@ -51,8 +50,7 @@ def get_header_version_info(srcdir): def get_sys_version_info(): major, minor, micro, level, serial = sys.version_info release = version = '%s.%s' % (major, minor) - if micro: - release += '.%s' % micro + release += '.%s' % micro if level != 'final': release += '%s%s' % (level[0], serial) return version, release diff --git a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/pyspecific.py b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/pyspecific.py index 89bb86f..bff10ab 100644 --- a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/pyspecific.py +++ b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/pyspecific.py @@ -5,12 +5,12 @@ Sphinx extension with Python doc-specific markup. - :copyright: 2008, 2009, 2010 by Georg Brandl. + :copyright: 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 by Georg Brandl. :license: Python license. """ ISSUE_URI = 'http://bugs.python.org/issue%s' -SOURCE_URI = 'http://hg.python.org/cpython/file/3.2/%s' +SOURCE_URI = 'http://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/%s' from docutils import nodes, utils from sphinx.util.nodes import split_explicit_title @@ -201,11 +201,12 @@ class PydocTopicsBuilder(Builder): document.append(doctree.ids[labelid]) destination = StringOutput(encoding='utf-8') writer.write(document, destination) - self.topics[label] = str(writer.output) + self.topics[label] = writer.output.encode('utf-8') def finish(self): f = open(path.join(self.outdir, 'topics.py'), 'w') try: + f.write('# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-\n') f.write('# Autogenerated by Sphinx on %s\n' % asctime()) f.write('topics = ' + pformat(self.topics) + '\n') finally: diff --git a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/susp-ignored.csv b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/susp-ignored.csv index 5076aed..7317ca2 100644 --- a/Doc/tools/sphinxext/susp-ignored.csv +++ b/Doc/tools/sphinxext/susp-ignored.csv @@ -1,16 +1,24 @@ c-api/arg,,:ref,"PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""O|O:ref"", &object, &callback)" c-api/list,,:high,list[low:high] c-api/list,,:high,list[low:high] = itemlist +c-api/sequence,,:i2,del o[i1:i2] c-api/sequence,,:i2,o[i1:i2] c-api/sequence,,:i2,o[i1:i2] = v -c-api/sequence,,:i2,del o[i1:i2] c-api/unicode,,:end,str[start:end] +c-api/unicode,,:start,unicode[start:start+length] +distutils/examples,267,`,This is the description of the ``foobar`` package. distutils/setupscript,,::, extending/embedding,,:numargs,"if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "":numargs""))" -extending/extending,,:set,"if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""O:set_callback"", &temp)) {" extending/extending,,:myfunction,"PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""D:myfunction"", &c);" +extending/extending,,:set,"if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""O:set_callback"", &temp)) {" extending/newtypes,,:call,"if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""sss:call"", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {" extending/windows,,:initspam,/export:initspam +faq/programming,,:chr,">=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(" +faq/programming,,::,for x in sequence[::-1]: +faq/programming,,:reduce,"print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda y," +faq/programming,,:reduce,"Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro," +faq/windows,229,:EOF,@setlocal enableextensions & python -x %~f0 %* & goto :EOF +faq/windows,393,:REG,.py :REG_SZ: c:\<path to python>\python.exe -u %s %s howto/cporting,,:add,"if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""ii:add_ints"", &one, &two))" howto/cporting,,:encode,"if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""O:encode_object"", &myobj))" howto/cporting,,:say,"if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""U:say_hello"", &name))" @@ -22,19 +30,91 @@ howto/curses,,:magenta,"They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:m howto/curses,,:red,"They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and" howto/curses,,:white,"7:white." howto/curses,,:yellow,"They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and" +howto/ipaddress,,:DB8,>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('::1') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,::,>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') +howto/ipaddress,,:ffff,IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff') +howto/ipaddress,,:ffff,IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001::1') +howto/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001::ffff:ffff') +howto/ipaddress,,:ffff,IPv6Address('2001::ffff:ffff') +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,'2001:db8::' +howto/ipaddress,,::,'2001:db8::' +howto/ipaddress,,:db8,'2001:db8::/96' +howto/ipaddress,,::,'2001:db8::/96' +howto/logging,,:And,"WARNING:And this, too" +howto/logging,,:And,"WARNING:root:And this, too" +howto/logging,,:Doing,INFO:root:Doing something +howto/logging,,:Finished,INFO:root:Finished +howto/logging,,:logger,severity:logger name:message +howto/logging,,:Look,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! +howto/logging,,:message,severity:logger name:message +howto/logging,,:root,DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file +howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Doing something +howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Finished +howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:So should this +howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Started +howto/logging,,:root,"WARNING:root:And this, too" +howto/logging,,:root,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! +howto/logging,,:root,WARNING:root:Watch out! +howto/logging,,:So,INFO:root:So should this +howto/logging,,:So,INFO:So should this +howto/logging,,:Started,INFO:root:Started +howto/logging,,:This,DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file +howto/logging,,:This,DEBUG:This message should appear on the console +howto/logging,,:Watch,WARNING:root:Watch out! +howto/pyporting,75,::,# make sure to use :: Python *and* :: Python :: 3 so +howto/pyporting,75,::,"'Programming Language :: Python'," +howto/pyporting,75,::,'Programming Language :: Python :: 3' howto/regex,,::, howto/regex,,:foo,(?:foo) howto/urllib2,,:example,"for example ""joe@password:example.com""" howto/webservers,,.. image:,.. image:: http.png library/audioop,,:ipos,"# factor = audioop.findfactor(in_test[ipos*2:ipos*2+len(out_test)]," +library/bisect,32,:hi,all(val >= x for val in a[i:hi]) +library/bisect,42,:hi,all(val > x for val in a[i:hi]) +library/configparser,,:home,my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds +library/configparser,,:option,${section:option} +library/configparser,,:path,python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python} +library/configparser,,:Python,python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python} +library/configparser,,`,# Set the optional `raw` argument of get() to True if you wish to disable +library/configparser,,:system,path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/ +library/configparser,,`,# The optional `fallback` argument can be used to provide a fallback value +library/configparser,,`,# The optional `vars` argument is a dict with members that will take library/datetime,,:MM, library/datetime,,:SS, library/decimal,,:optional,"trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator" library/difflib,,:ahi,a[alo:ahi] library/difflib,,:bhi,b[blo:bhi] +library/difflib,,:i1, library/difflib,,:i2, library/difflib,,:j2, -library/difflib,,:i1, library/dis,,:TOS, library/dis,,`,TOS = `TOS` library/doctest,,`,``factorial`` from the ``example`` module: @@ -44,96 +124,187 @@ library/functions,,:step,a[start:stop:step] library/functions,,:stop,"a[start:stop, i]" library/functions,,:stop,a[start:stop:step] library/hotshot,,:lineno,"ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function)" +library/http.client,52,:port,host:port +library/http.cookies,,`,!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~: library/httplib,,:port,host:port -library/imaplib,,:MM,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS +HHMM""" -library/imaplib,,:SS,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS +HHMM""" -library/itertools,,:stop,elements from seq[start:stop:step] +library/imaplib,,:MM,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS" +library/imaplib,,:SS,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS" +library/inspect,,:int,">>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):" +library/inspect,,:int,"'(a, *, b:int, **kwargs)'" +library/inspect,,:int,'b:int' +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::') +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Address('2001:db8::') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001:db8::') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96') +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96').network +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1000/96').network +library/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96').netmask +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96').netmask +library/ipaddress,,:ffff,IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') +library/ipaddress,,::,IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') +library/ipaddress,,:db8,">>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::1000/96', strict=False)" +library/ipaddress,,::,">>> ipaddress.IPv6Network('2001:db8::1000/96', strict=False)" +library/ipaddress,,::,"""::abc:7:def""" +library/ipaddress,,:def,"""::abc:7:def""" +library/ipaddress,,::,::FFFF/96 +library/ipaddress,,::,2002::/16 +library/ipaddress,,::,2001::/32 +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) +library/ipaddress,,::,'::1' +library/ipaddress,,::,>>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) +library/ipaddress,,:ff00,ffff:ff00:: +library/ipaddress,,:db00,2001:db00::0/24 +library/ipaddress,,::,2001:db00::0/24 +library/ipaddress,,:db00,2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00:: +library/ipaddress,,::,2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00:: +library/ipaddress,,:ff00,2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00:: library/itertools,,:step,elements from seq[start:stop:step] +library/itertools,,:stop,elements from seq[start:stop:step] library/linecache,,:sys,"sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/bin/sh" library/logging,,:And, +library/logging,,:Doing,INFO:root:Doing something +library/logging,,:Finished,INFO:root:Finished +library/logging,,:logger,severity:logger name:message +library/logging,,:Look,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! +library/logging,,:message,severity:logger name:message library/logging,,:package1, library/logging,,:package2, +library/logging,,:port,host:port library/logging,,:root, +library/logging,,:So,INFO:root:So should this +library/logging,,:So,INFO:So should this +library/logging,,:Started,INFO:root:Started library/logging,,:This, -library/logging,,:port,host:port +library/logging,,:Watch,WARNING:root:Watch out! +library/logging.handlers,,:port,host:port library/mmap,,:i2,obj[i1:i2] -library/multiprocessing,,:queue,">>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)" -library/multiprocessing,,`,">>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,)) # equiv to `l[20]`" -library/multiprocessing,,`,">>> l._callmethod('__getslice__', (2, 7)) # equiv to `l[2:7]`" -library/multiprocessing,,`,# `BaseManager`. -library/multiprocessing,,`,# `Pool.imap()` (which will save on the amount of code needed anyway). +library/multiprocessing,,`,# Add more tasks using `put()` library/multiprocessing,,`,# A test file for the `multiprocessing` package library/multiprocessing,,`,# A test of `multiprocessing.Pool` class -library/multiprocessing,,`,# Add more tasks using `put()` +library/multiprocessing,,`,# `BaseManager`. +library/multiprocessing,,`,`Cluster` is a subclass of `SyncManager` so it allows creation of library/multiprocessing,,`,# create server for a `HostManager` object library/multiprocessing,,`,# Depends on `multiprocessing` package -- tested with `processing-0.60` +library/multiprocessing,,`,`hostname` gives the name of the host. If hostname is not library/multiprocessing,,`,# in the original order then consider using `Pool.map()` or +library/multiprocessing,,`,">>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,)) # equiv to `l[20]`" +library/multiprocessing,,`,">>> l._callmethod('__getslice__', (2, 7)) # equiv to `l[2:7]`" library/multiprocessing,,`,# Not sure if we should synchronize access to `socket.accept()` method by library/multiprocessing,,`,# object. (We import `multiprocessing.reduction` to enable this pickling.) +library/multiprocessing,,`,# `Pool.imap()` (which will save on the amount of code needed anyway). +library/multiprocessing,,:queue,">>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)" library/multiprocessing,,`,# register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy library/multiprocessing,,`,# register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy library/multiprocessing,,`,# register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies -library/multiprocessing,,`,`Cluster` is a subclass of `SyncManager` so it allows creation of -library/multiprocessing,,`,`hostname` gives the name of the host. If hostname is not library/multiprocessing,,`,`slots` is used to specify the number of slots for processes on +library/nntplib,,:bytes,:bytes +library/nntplib,,:bytes,"['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']" +library/nntplib,,:lines,:lines +library/nntplib,,:lines,"['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']" library/optparse,,:len,"del parser.rargs[:len(value)]" library/os.path,,:foo,c:foo library/parser,,`,"""Make a function that raises an argument to the exponent `exp`.""" +library/pdb,,:lineno,filename:lineno +library/pdb,,:lineno,[filename:lineno | bpnumber [bpnumber ...]] +library/pickle,,:memory,"conn = sqlite3.connect("":memory:"")" library/posix,,`,"CFLAGS=""`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`"" OPT=""-g -O2 $CFLAGS""" -library/profile,,:lineno,ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function) +library/pprint,209,::,"'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 4 - Beta'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Intended Audience :: Developers'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Natural Language :: English'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Operating System :: OS Independent'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries'," +library/pprint,209,::,"'Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries :: Python Modules']," library/profile,,:lineno,filename:lineno(function) +library/profile,,:lineno,ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function) +library/profile,,:lineno,"(sort by filename:lineno)," library/pyexpat,,:elem1,<py:elem1 /> library/pyexpat,,:py,"xmlns:py = ""http://www.python.org/ns/"">" library/repr,,`,"return `obj`" library/smtplib,,:port,"as well as a regular host:port server." +library/smtplib,,:port,method must support that as well as a regular host:port +library/socket,,::,"(10, 1, 6, '', ('2001:888:2000:d::a2', 80, 0, 0))]" library/socket,,::,'5aef:2b::8' -library/sqlite3,,:memory, +library/socket,,:can,"return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])" +library/socket,,:len,fds.fromstring(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)]) +library/sqlite3,,:age,"cur.execute(""select * from people where name_last=:who and age=:age"", {""who"": who, ""age"": age})" library/sqlite3,,:age,"select name_last, age from people where name_last=:who and age=:age" -library/sqlite3,,:who,"select name_last, age from people where name_last=:who and age=:age" -library/ssl,,:My,"Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc." +library/sqlite3,,:memory, +library/sqlite3,,:who,"cur.execute(""select * from people where name_last=:who and age=:age"", {""who"": who, ""age"": age})" library/ssl,,:My,"Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group" +library/ssl,,:My,"Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc." library/ssl,,:myserver,"Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com" library/ssl,,:MyState,State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState library/ssl,,:ops,Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com library/ssl,,:Some,"Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City" library/ssl,,:US,Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US +library/stdtypes,,::,>>> a[::-1].tolist() +library/stdtypes,,::,>>> a[::2].tolist() +library/stdtypes,,:end,s[start:end] +library/stdtypes,,::,>>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2]) library/stdtypes,,:len,s[len(s):len(s)] -library/stdtypes,,:len,s[len(s):len(s)] +library/stdtypes,,::,>>> y = m[::2] +library/stdtypes,,::,>>> z = y[::-2] library/string,,:end,s[start:end] -library/string,,:end,s[start:end] -library/subprocess,,`,"output=`mycmd myarg`" library/subprocess,,`,"output=`dmesg | grep hda`" +library/subprocess,,`,"output=`mycmd myarg`" +library/tarfile,,:bz2, library/tarfile,,:compression,filemode[:compression] library/tarfile,,:gz, -library/tarfile,,:bz2, +library/tarfile,,:xz,'a:xz' +library/tarfile,,:xz,'r:xz' +library/tarfile,,:xz,'w:xz' library/time,,:mm, library/time,,:ss, library/turtle,,::,Example:: -library/urllib,,:port,:port library/urllib2,,:password,"""joe:password@python.org""" +library/urllib,,:port,:port +library/urllib.request,,:close,Connection:close +library/urllib.request,,:lang,"xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"" xml:lang=""en"" lang=""en"">\n\n<head>\n" +library/urllib.request,,:password,"""joe:password@python.org""" library/uuid,,:uuid,urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678 -library/xmlrpclib,,:pass,http://user:pass@host:port/path -library/xmlrpclib,,:pass,user:pass -library/xmlrpclib,,:port,http://user:pass@host:port/path +library/xmlrpc.client,,:pass,http://user:pass@host:port/path +library/xmlrpc.client,,:pass,user:pass +library/xmlrpc.client,,:port,http://user:pass@host:port/path +license,,`,"``Software''), to deal in the Software without restriction, including" +license,,`,"THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS'', WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND," +license,,`,* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY ERIC YOUNG ``AS IS'' AND +license,,`,THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND +license,,`,* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE OpenSSL PROJECT ``AS IS'' AND ANY license,,`,THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND license,,:zooko,mailto:zooko@zooko.com -license,,`,THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND -reference/datamodel,,:step,a[i:j:step] reference/datamodel,,:max, -reference/expressions,,:index,x[index:index] +reference/datamodel,,:step,a[i:j:step] reference/expressions,,:datum,{key:datum...} reference/expressions,,`,`expressions...` +reference/expressions,,:index,x[index:index] reference/grammar,,:output,#diagram:output reference/grammar,,:rules,#diagram:rules -reference/grammar,,:token,#diagram:token reference/grammar,,`,'`' testlist1 '`' -reference/lexical_analysis,,:fileencoding,# vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name> +reference/grammar,,:token,#diagram:token reference/lexical_analysis,,`,", : . ` = ;" -tutorial/datastructures,,:value,key:value pairs within the braces adds initial key:value pairs +reference/lexical_analysis,,`,$ ? ` +reference/lexical_analysis,,:fileencoding,# vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name> tutorial/datastructures,,:value,It is also possible to delete a key:value -tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,"fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])" -tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,extra = data[start:start+extra_size] -tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,filename = data[start:start+filenamesize] +tutorial/datastructures,,:value,key:value pairs within the braces adds initial key:value pairs tutorial/stdlib2,,:config,"logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')" tutorial/stdlib2,,:config,WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found tutorial/stdlib2,,:Critical,CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down @@ -141,15 +312,16 @@ tutorial/stdlib2,,:Error,ERROR:root:Error occurred tutorial/stdlib2,,:root,CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down tutorial/stdlib2,,:root,ERROR:root:Error occurred tutorial/stdlib2,,:root,WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found +tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,extra = data[start:start+extra_size] +tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,"fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])" +tutorial/stdlib2,,:start,filename = data[start:start+filenamesize] tutorial/stdlib2,,:Warning,WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found -using/cmdline,,:line,file:line: category: message using/cmdline,,:category,action:message:category:module:line +using/cmdline,,:errorhandler,:errorhandler using/cmdline,,:line,action:message:category:module:line +using/cmdline,,:line,file:line: category: message using/cmdline,,:message,action:message:category:module:line using/cmdline,,:module,action:message:category:module:line -using/cmdline,,:errorhandler,:errorhandler -using/windows,162,`,`` this fixes syntax highlighting errors in some editors due to the \\\\ hackery -using/windows,170,`,`` whatsnew/2.0,418,:len, whatsnew/2.3,,::, whatsnew/2.3,,:config, @@ -163,113 +335,26 @@ whatsnew/2.4,,:System, whatsnew/2.5,,:memory,:memory: whatsnew/2.5,,:step,[start:stop:step] whatsnew/2.5,,:stop,[start:stop:step] -distutils/examples,267,`,This is the description of the ``foobar`` package. -faq/programming,,:reduce,"print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda y," -faq/programming,,:reduce,"Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro," -faq/programming,,:chr,">=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(" -faq/programming,,::,for x in sequence[::-1]: -faq/windows,229,:EOF,@setlocal enableextensions & python -x %~f0 %* & goto :EOF -faq/windows,393,:REG,.py :REG_SZ: c:\<path to python>\python.exe -u %s %s -library/bisect,32,:hi,all(val >= x for val in a[i:hi]) -library/bisect,42,:hi,all(val > x for val in a[i:hi]) -library/http.client,52,:port,host:port -library/nntplib,,:bytes,:bytes -library/nntplib,,:lines,:lines -library/nntplib,,:lines,"['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']" -library/nntplib,,:bytes,"['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']" -library/pickle,,:memory,"conn = sqlite3.connect("":memory:"")" -library/profile,,:lineno,"(sort by filename:lineno)," -library/socket,,::,"(10, 1, 6, '', ('2001:888:2000:d::a2', 80, 0, 0))]" -library/stdtypes,,:end,s[start:end] -library/stdtypes,,:end,s[start:end] -library/urllib.request,,:close,Connection:close -library/urllib.request,,:password,"""joe:password@python.org""" -library/urllib.request,,:lang,"xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"" xml:lang=""en"" lang=""en"">\n\n<head>\n" -library/xmlrpc.client,103,:pass,http://user:pass@host:port/path -library/xmlrpc.client,103,:port,http://user:pass@host:port/path -library/xmlrpc.client,103,:pass,user:pass -license,,`,* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE OpenSSL PROJECT ``AS IS'' AND ANY -license,,`,* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY ERIC YOUNG ``AS IS'' AND -license,,`,"``Software''), to deal in the Software without restriction, including" -license,,`,"THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS'', WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND," -reference/lexical_analysis,704,`,$ ? ` +whatsnew/2.7,1619,::,"ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]'," +whatsnew/2.7,1619,::,>>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo') whatsnew/2.7,735,:Sunday,'2009:4:Sunday' -whatsnew/2.7,862,::,"export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0" whatsnew/2.7,862,:Cookie,"export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0" -whatsnew/2.7,1619,::,>>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo') -whatsnew/2.7,1619,::,"ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]'," -library/configparser,,`,# Set the optional `raw` argument of get() to True if you wish to disable -library/configparser,,`,# The optional `vars` argument is a dict with members that will take -library/configparser,,`,# The optional `fallback` argument can be used to provide a fallback value -library/configparser,,:option,${section:option} -library/configparser,,:system,path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/ -library/configparser,,:home,my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds -library/configparser,,:path,python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python} -library/configparser,,:Python,python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python} -library/pdb,,:lineno,[filename:lineno | bpnumber [bpnumber ...]] -library/pdb,,:lineno,filename:lineno -library/logging,,:Watch,WARNING:root:Watch out! -library/logging,,:So,INFO:root:So should this -library/logging,,:Started,INFO:root:Started -library/logging,,:Doing,INFO:root:Doing something -library/logging,,:Finished,INFO:root:Finished -library/logging,,:Look,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! -library/logging,,:So,INFO:So should this -library/logging,,:logger,severity:logger name:message -library/logging,,:message,severity:logger name:message -whatsnew/3.2,,:directory,... ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist -whatsnew/3.2,,:location,... zope9-location = ${zope9:location} -whatsnew/3.2,,:prefix,... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf -howto/logging,,:root,WARNING:root:Watch out! -howto/logging,,:Watch,WARNING:root:Watch out! -howto/logging,,:root,DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file -howto/logging,,:This,DEBUG:root:This message should go to the log file -howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:So should this -howto/logging,,:So,INFO:root:So should this -howto/logging,,:root,"WARNING:root:And this, too" -howto/logging,,:And,"WARNING:root:And this, too" -howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Started -howto/logging,,:Started,INFO:root:Started -howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Doing something -howto/logging,,:Doing,INFO:root:Doing something -howto/logging,,:root,INFO:root:Finished -howto/logging,,:Finished,INFO:root:Finished -howto/logging,,:root,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! -howto/logging,,:Look,WARNING:root:Look before you leap! -howto/logging,,:This,DEBUG:This message should appear on the console -howto/logging,,:So,INFO:So should this -howto/logging,,:And,"WARNING:And this, too" -howto/logging,,:logger,severity:logger name:message -howto/logging,,:message,severity:logger name:message -library/logging.handlers,,:port,host:port -library/imaplib,116,:MM,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS" -library/imaplib,116,:SS,"""DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS" -whatsnew/3.2,,::,"$ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'" -howto/pyporting,75,::,# make sure to use :: Python *and* :: Python :: 3 so -howto/pyporting,75,::,"'Programming Language :: Python'," -howto/pyporting,75,::,'Programming Language :: Python :: 3' -whatsnew/3.2,,:gz,">>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:" -whatsnew/3.2,,:directory,${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist -whatsnew/3.2,,:location,zope9-location = ${zope9:location} -whatsnew/3.2,,:prefix,zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf -whatsnew/3.2,,:beef,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') -whatsnew/3.2,,:cafe,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') +whatsnew/2.7,862,::,"export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0" +whatsnew/3.2,,:affe,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," whatsnew/3.2,,:affe,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') -whatsnew/3.2,,:deaf,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') -whatsnew/3.2,,:feed,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') whatsnew/3.2,,:beef,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," +whatsnew/3.2,,:beef,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') whatsnew/3.2,,:cafe,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," -whatsnew/3.2,,:affe,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," +whatsnew/3.2,,:cafe,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') whatsnew/3.2,,:deaf,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," +whatsnew/3.2,,:deaf,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') +whatsnew/3.2,,:directory,... ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist +whatsnew/3.2,,:directory,${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist +whatsnew/3.2,,::,"$ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'" whatsnew/3.2,,:feed,"netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 4 - Beta'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Intended Audience :: Developers'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Natural Language :: English'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Operating System :: OS Independent'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries'," -library/pprint,209,::,"'Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries :: Python Modules']," +whatsnew/3.2,,:feed,>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') +whatsnew/3.2,,:gz,">>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:" +whatsnew/3.2,,:location,... zope9-location = ${zope9:location} +whatsnew/3.2,,:location,zope9-location = ${zope9:location} +whatsnew/3.2,,:prefix,... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf +whatsnew/3.2,,:prefix,zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/classes.rst b/Doc/tutorial/classes.rst index 5ce3669..b4f09c2 100644 --- a/Doc/tutorial/classes.rst +++ b/Doc/tutorial/classes.rst @@ -184,7 +184,6 @@ The output of the example code is: .. code-block:: none - After local assignment: test spam After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam After global assignment: nonlocal spam @@ -698,9 +697,9 @@ example, the following code will print B, C, D in that order:: class D(C): pass - for c in [B, C, D]: + for cls in [B, C, D]: try: - raise c() + raise cls() except D: print("D") except C: diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst b/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst index 7ec044c..ed81ade 100644 --- a/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst +++ b/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst @@ -19,13 +19,13 @@ objects: .. method:: list.append(x) :noindex: - Add an item to the end of the list; equivalent to ``a[len(a):] = [x]``. + Add an item to the end of the list. Equivalent to ``a[len(a):] = [x]``. .. method:: list.extend(L) :noindex: - Extend the list by appending all the items in the given list; equivalent to + Extend the list by appending all the items in the given list. Equivalent to ``a[len(a):] = L``. @@ -40,8 +40,8 @@ objects: .. method:: list.remove(x) :noindex: - Remove the first item from the list whose value is *x*. It is an error if there - is no such item. + Remove the first item from the list whose value is *x*. It is an error if + there is no such item. .. method:: list.pop([i]) @@ -70,13 +70,14 @@ objects: .. method:: list.sort() :noindex: - Sort the items of the list, in place. + Sort the items of the list in place. .. method:: list.reverse() :noindex: - Reverse the elements of the list, in place. + Reverse the elements of the list in place. + An example that uses most of the list methods:: @@ -99,6 +100,10 @@ An example that uses most of the list methods:: >>> a [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5] +You might have noticed that methods like ``insert``, ``remove`` or ``sort`` that +modify the list have no return value printed -- they return ``None``. [1]_ This +is a design principle for all mutable data structures in Python. + .. _tut-lists-as-stacks: @@ -480,7 +485,7 @@ using a non-existent key. Performing ``list(d.keys())`` on a dictionary returns a list of all the keys used in the dictionary, in arbitrary order (if you want it sorted, just use -``sorted(d.keys())`` instead). [1]_ To check whether a single key is in the +``sorted(d.keys())`` instead). [2]_ To check whether a single key is in the dictionary, use the :keyword:`in` keyword. Here is a small example using a dictionary:: @@ -664,6 +669,9 @@ interpreter will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception. .. rubric:: Footnotes -.. [1] Calling ``d.keys()`` will return a :dfn:`dictionary view` object. It +.. [1] Other languages may return the mutated object, which allows method + chaining, such as ``d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();``. + +.. [2] Calling ``d.keys()`` will return a :dfn:`dictionary view` object. It supports operations like membership test and iteration, but its contents are not independent of the original dictionary -- it is only a *view*. diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst b/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst index 2338465..8f08cd8 100644 --- a/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst +++ b/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst @@ -10,11 +10,11 @@ Using the Python Interpreter Invoking the Interpreter ======================== -The Python interpreter is usually installed as :file:`/usr/local/bin/python3.2` +The Python interpreter is usually installed as :file:`/usr/local/bin/python3.3` on those machines where it is available; putting :file:`/usr/local/bin` in your Unix shell's search path makes it possible to start it by typing the command :: - python3.2 + python3.3 to the shell. [#]_ Since the choice of the directory where the interpreter lives is an installation option, other places are possible; check with your local @@ -22,11 +22,11 @@ Python guru or system administrator. (E.g., :file:`/usr/local/python` is a popular alternative location.) On Windows machines, the Python installation is usually placed in -:file:`C:\\Python32`, though you can change this when you're running the +:file:`C:\\Python33`, though you can change this when you're running the installer. To add this directory to your path, you can type the following command into the command prompt in a DOS box:: - set path=%path%;C:\python32 + set path=%path%;C:\python33 Typing an end-of-file character (:kbd:`Control-D` on Unix, :kbd:`Control-Z` on Windows) at the primary prompt causes the interpreter to exit with a zero exit @@ -93,8 +93,8 @@ with the *secondary prompt*, by default three dots (``...``). The interpreter prints a welcome message stating its version number and a copyright notice before printing the first prompt:: - $ python3.2 - Python 3.2 (py3k, Sep 12 2007, 12:21:02) + $ python3.3 + Python 3.3 (py3k, Sep 12 2007, 12:21:02) [GCC 3.4.6 20060404 (Red Hat 3.4.6-8)] on linux2 Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information. >>> @@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ Executable Python Scripts On BSD'ish Unix systems, Python scripts can be made directly executable, like shell scripts, by putting the line :: - #! /usr/bin/env python3.2 + #! /usr/bin/env python3.3 (assuming that the interpreter is on the user's :envvar:`PATH`) at the beginning of the script and giving the file an executable mode. The ``#!`` must be the diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst index 9729743..500ca7f 100644 --- a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst +++ b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ operating system:: >>> import os >>> os.getcwd() # Return the current working directory - 'C:\\Python31' + 'C:\\Python33' >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs') # Change current working directory >>> os.system('mkdir today') # Run the command mkdir in the system shell 0 diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst index fe7f027..85c88dc 100644 --- a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst +++ b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst @@ -141,7 +141,9 @@ standard size and in little-endian byte order:: import struct - data = open('myfile.zip', 'rb').read() + with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f: + data = f.read() + start = 0 for i in range(3): # show the first 3 file headers start += 14 @@ -271,7 +273,7 @@ applications include caching objects that are expensive to create:: Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> d['primary'] # entry was automatically removed - File "C:/python31/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__ + File "C:/python33/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__ o = self.data[key]() KeyError: 'primary' diff --git a/Doc/using/cmdline.rst b/Doc/using/cmdline.rst index 0d12126..8864b79 100644 --- a/Doc/using/cmdline.rst +++ b/Doc/using/cmdline.rst @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Command line When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options:: - python [-bBdEhiORqsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args] + python [-bBdEhiOqsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args] The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script:: @@ -229,23 +229,22 @@ Miscellaneous options .. cmdoption:: -R - Turn on hash randomization, so that the :meth:`__hash__` values of str, bytes - and datetime objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value. - Although they remain constant within an individual Python process, they are - not predictable between repeated invocations of Python. + Kept for compatibility. On Python 3.3 and greater, hash randomization is + turned on by default. - This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused by - carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a dict - construction, O(n^2) complexity. See - http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details. + On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash randomization, + so that the :meth:`__hash__` values of str, bytes and datetime + are "salted" with an unpredictable random value. Although they remain + constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable + between repeated invocations of Python. - Changing hash values affects the order in which keys are retrieved from a - dict. Although Python has never made guarantees about this ordering (and it - typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds), enough real-world code - implicitly relies on this non-guaranteed behavior that the randomization is - disabled by default. + Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a + denial-of-service caused by carefully-chosen inputs that exploit the worst + case performance of a dict construction, O(n^2) complexity. See + http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details. - See also :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`. + :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` allows you to set a fixed value for the hash + seed secret. .. versionadded:: 3.2.3 @@ -263,7 +262,9 @@ Miscellaneous options .. cmdoption:: -S Disable the import of the module :mod:`site` and the site-dependent - manipulations of :data:`sys.path` that it entails. + manipulations of :data:`sys.path` that it entails. Also disable these + manipulations if :mod:`site` is explicitly imported later (call + :func:`site.main` if you want them to be triggered). .. cmdoption:: -u @@ -472,7 +473,7 @@ These environment variables influence Python's behavior. .. envvar:: PYTHONCASEOK If this is set, Python ignores case in :keyword:`import` statements. This - only works on Windows, OS X, and OS/2. + only works on Windows and OS X. .. envvar:: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE @@ -484,9 +485,8 @@ These environment variables influence Python's behavior. .. envvar:: PYTHONHASHSEED - If this variable is set to ``random``, the effect is the same as specifying - the :option:`-R` option: a random value is used to seed the hashes of str, - bytes and datetime objects. + If this variable is not set or set to ``random``, a random value is used + to seed the hashes of str, bytes and datetime objects. If :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` is set to an integer value, it is used as a fixed seed for generating the hash() of the types covered by the hash @@ -497,8 +497,7 @@ These environment variables influence Python's behavior. values. The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295]. Specifying - the value 0 will lead to the same hash values as when hash randomization is - disabled. + the value 0 will disable hash randomization. .. versionadded:: 3.2.3 @@ -528,8 +527,8 @@ These environment variables influence Python's behavior. Defines the :data:`user base directory <site.USER_BASE>`, which is used to compute the path of the :data:`user site-packages directory <site.USER_SITE>` - and :ref:`Distutils installation paths <inst-alt-install-user>` for ``python - setup.py install --user``. + and :ref:`Distutils installation paths <inst-alt-install-user>` for + ``python setup.py install --user``. .. seealso:: @@ -548,6 +547,14 @@ These environment variables influence Python's behavior. separated string, it is equivalent to specifying :option:`-W` multiple times. +.. envvar:: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER + + If this environment variable is set, :func:`faulthandler.enable` is called + at startup: install a handler for :const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`, + :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS` and :const:`SIGILL` signals to dump the + Python traceback. This is equivalent to :option:`-X` ``faulthandler`` + option. + Debug-mode variables ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ diff --git a/Doc/using/index.rst b/Doc/using/index.rst index 1201153..502afa9 100644 --- a/Doc/using/index.rst +++ b/Doc/using/index.rst @@ -17,4 +17,4 @@ interpreter and things that make working with Python easier. unix.rst windows.rst mac.rst - + scripts.rst diff --git a/Doc/using/scripts.rst b/Doc/using/scripts.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c87416 --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/using/scripts.rst @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +.. _tools-and-scripts: + +Additional Tools and Scripts +============================ + +.. _scripts-pyvenv: + +pyvenv - Creating virtual environments +-------------------------------------- + +.. include:: venv-create.inc + diff --git a/Doc/using/venv-create.inc b/Doc/using/venv-create.inc new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fdbc9b --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/using/venv-create.inc @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +Creation of :ref:`virtual environments <venv-def>` is done by executing the +``pyvenv`` script:: + + pyvenv /path/to/new/virtual/environment + +Running this command creates the target directory (creating any parent +directories that don't exist already) and places a ``pyvenv.cfg`` file in it +with a ``home`` key pointing to the Python installation the command was run +from. It also creates a ``bin`` (or ``Scripts`` on Windows) subdirectory +containing a copy of the ``python`` binary (or binaries, in the case of +Windows). It also creates an (initially empty) ``lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages`` +subdirectory (on Windows, this is ``Lib\site-packages``). + +.. highlight:: none + +On Windows, you may have to invoke the ``pyvenv`` script as follows, if you +don't have the relevant PATH and PATHEXT settings:: + + c:\Temp>c:\Python33\python c:\Python33\Tools\Scripts\pyvenv.py myenv + +or equivalently:: + + c:\Temp>c:\Python33\python -m venv myenv + +The command, if run with ``-h``, will show the available options:: + + usage: pyvenv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks] [--clear] + [--upgrade] ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...] + + Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories. + + positional arguments: + ENV_DIR A directory to create the environment in. + + optional arguments: + -h, --help show this help message and exit + --system-site-packages Give access to the global site-packages dir to the + virtual environment. + --symlinks Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks + are not the default for the platform. + --clear Delete the environment directory if it already exists. + If not specified and the directory exists, an error is + raised. + --upgrade Upgrade the environment directory to use this version + of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded in-place. + +If the target directory already exists an error will be raised, unless +the ``--clear`` or ``--upgrade`` option was provided. + +The created ``pyvenv.cfg`` file also includes the +``include-system-site-packages`` key, set to ``true`` if ``venv`` is +run with the ``--system-site-packages`` option, ``false`` otherwise. + +Multiple paths can be given to ``pyvenv``, in which case an identical +virtualenv will be created, according to the given options, at each +provided path. + +Once a venv has been created, it can be "activated" using a script in the +venv's binary directory. The invocation of the script is platform-specific: on +a Posix platform, you would typically do:: + + $ source <venv>/bin/activate + +whereas on Windows, you might do:: + + C:\> <venv>/Scripts/activate + +if you are using the ``cmd.exe`` shell, or perhaps:: + + PS C:\> <venv>/Scripts/Activate.ps1 + +if you use PowerShell. + +You don't specifically *need* to activate an environment; activation just +prepends the venv's binary directory to your path, so that "python" invokes the +venv's Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts without having to +use their full path. However, all scripts installed in a venv should be +runnable without activating it, and run with the venv's Python automatically. + +You can deactivate a venv by typing "deactivate" in your shell. The exact +mechanism is platform-specific: for example, the Bash activation script defines +a "deactivate" function, whereas on Windows there are separate scripts called +``deactivate.bat`` and ``Deactivate.ps1`` which are installed when the venv is +created. + diff --git a/Doc/using/windows.rst b/Doc/using/windows.rst index 742a290..51152df 100644 --- a/Doc/using/windows.rst +++ b/Doc/using/windows.rst @@ -82,6 +82,8 @@ In order to run Python flawlessly, you might have to change certain environment settings in Windows. +.. _setting-envvars: + Excursus: Setting environment variables --------------------------------------- @@ -133,18 +135,28 @@ Consult :command:`set /?` for details on this behaviour. Finding the Python executable ----------------------------- +.. versionchanged:: 3.3 + Besides using the automatically created start menu entry for the Python -interpreter, you might want to start Python in the DOS prompt. To make this -work, you need to set your :envvar:`%PATH%` environment variable to include the -directory of your Python distribution, delimited by a semicolon from other -entries. An example variable could look like this (assuming the first two -entries are Windows' default):: +interpreter, you might want to start Python in the command prompt. As of +Python 3.3, the installer has an option to set that up for you. + +At the "Customize Python 3.3" screen, an option called +"Add python.exe to search path" can be enabled to have the installer place +your installation into the :envvar:`%PATH%`. This allows you to type +:command:`python` to run the interpreter. Thus, you can also execute your +scripts with command line options, see :ref:`using-on-cmdline` documentation. - C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Python25 +If you don't enable this option at install time, you can always re-run the +installer to choose it. -Typing :command:`python` on your command prompt will now fire up the Python -interpreter. Thus, you can also execute your scripts with command line options, -see :ref:`using-on-cmdline` documentation. +The alternative is manually modifying the :envvar:`%PATH%` using the +directions in :ref:`setting-envvars`. You need to set your :envvar:`%PATH%` +environment variable to include the directory of your Python distribution, +delimited by a semicolon from other entries. An example variable could look +like this (assuming the first two entries are Windows' default):: + + C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Python33 Finding modules @@ -203,13 +215,19 @@ The end result of all this is: Executing scripts ----------------- -Python scripts (files with the extension ``.py``) will be executed by -:program:`python.exe` by default. This executable opens a terminal, which stays -open even if the program uses a GUI. If you do not want this to happen, use the -extension ``.pyw`` which will cause the script to be executed by -:program:`pythonw.exe` by default (both executables are located in the top-level -of your Python installation directory). This suppresses the terminal window on -startup. +As of Python 3.3, Python includes a launcher which facilitates running Python +scripts. See :ref:`launcher` for more information. + +Executing scripts without the Python launcher +--------------------------------------------- + +Without the Python launcher installed, Python scripts (files with the extension +``.py``) will be executed by :program:`python.exe` by default. This executable +opens a terminal, which stays open even if the program uses a GUI. If you do +not want this to happen, use the extension ``.pyw`` which will cause the script +to be executed by :program:`pythonw.exe` by default (both executables are +located in the top-level of your Python installation directory). This +suppresses the terminal window on startup. You can also make all ``.py`` scripts execute with :program:`pythonw.exe`, setting this through the usual facilities, for example (might require @@ -225,6 +243,250 @@ administrative rights): ftype Python.File=C:\Path\to\pythonw.exe "%1" %* +.. _launcher: + +Python Launcher for Windows +=========================== + +.. versionadded:: 3.3 + +The Python launcher for Windows is a utility which aids in the location and +execution of different Python versions. It allows scripts (or the +command-line) to indicate a preference for a specific Python version, and +will locate and execute that version. + +Getting started +--------------- + +From the command-line +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +You should ensure the launcher is on your PATH - depending on how it was +installed it may already be there, but check just in case it is not. + +From a command-prompt, execute the following command: + +:: + + py + +You should find that the latest version of Python 2.x you have installed is +started - it can be exited as normal, and any additional command-line +arguments specified will be sent directly to Python. + +If you have multiple versions of Python 2.x installed (e.g., 2.6 and 2.7) you +will have noticed that Python 2.7 was started - to launch Python 2.6, try the +command: + +:: + + py -2.6 + +If you have a Python 3.x installed, try the command: + +:: + + py -3 + +You should find the latest version of Python 3.x starts. + +From a script +^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Let's create a test Python script - create a file called ``hello.py`` with the +following contents + +:: + + #! python + import sys + sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,)) + +From the directory in which hello.py lives, execute the command: + +:: + + py hello.py + +You should notice the version number of your latest Python 2.x installation +is printed. Now try changing the first line to be: + +:: + + #! python3 + +Re-executing the command should now print the latest Python 3.x information. +As with the above command-line examples, you can specify a more explicit +version qualifier. Assuming you have Python 2.6 installed, try changing the +first line to ``#! python2.6`` and you should find the 2.6 version +information printed. + +From file associations +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The launcher should have been associated with Python files (i.e. ``.py``, +``.pyw``, ``.pyc``, ``.pyo`` files) when it was installed. This means that +when you double-click on one of these files from Windows explorer the launcher +will be used, and therefore you can use the same facilities described above to +have the script specify the version which should be used. + +The key benefit of this is that a single launcher can support multiple Python +versions at the same time depending on the contents of the first line. + +Shebang Lines +------------- + +If the first line of a script file starts with ``#!``, it is known as a +"shebang" line. Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native +support for such lines and are commonly used on such systems to indicate how +a script should be executed. This launcher allows the same facilities to be +using with Python scripts on Windows and the examples above demonstrate their +use. + +To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and +Windows, this launcher supports a number of 'virtual' commands to specify +which interpreter to use. The supported virtual commands are: + +* ``/usr/bin/env python`` +* ``/usr/bin/python`` +* ``/usr/local/bin/python`` +* ``python`` + +For example, if the first line of your script starts with + +:: + + #! /usr/bin/python + +The default Python will be located and used. As many Python scripts written +to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find these scripts can +be used by the launcher without modification. If you are writing a new script +on Windows which you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the +shebang lines starting with ``/usr``. + +Arguments in shebang lines +-------------------------- + +The shebang lines can also specify additional options to be passed to the +Python interpreter. For example, if you have a shebang line: + +:: + + #! /usr/bin/python -v + +Then Python will be started with the ``-v`` option + +Customization +------------- + +Customization via INI files +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + + Two .ini files will be searched by the launcher - ``py.ini`` in the + current user's "application data" directory (i.e. the directory returned + by calling the Windows function SHGetFolderPath with CSIDL_LOCAL_APPDATA) + and ``py.ini`` in the same directory as the launcher. The same .ini + files are used for both the 'console' version of the launcher (i.e. + py.exe) and for the 'windows' version (i.e. pyw.exe) + + Customization specified in the "application directory" will have + precedence over the one next to the executable, so a user, who may not + have write access to the .ini file next to the launcher, can override + commands in that global .ini file) + +Customizing default Python versions +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +In some cases, a version qualifier can be included in a command to dictate +which version of Python will be used by the command. A version qualifier +starts with a major version number and can optionally be followed by a period +('.') and a minor version specifier. If the minor qualifier is specified, it +may optionally be followed by "-32" to indicate the 32-bit implementation of +that version be used. + +For example, a shebang line of ``#!python`` has no version qualifier, while +``#!python3`` has a version qualifier which specifies only a major version. + +If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment variable +``PY_PYTHON`` can be set to specify the default version qualifier - the default +value is "2". Note this value could specify just a major version (e.g. "2") or +a major.minor qualifier (e.g. "2.6"), or even major.minor-32. + +If no minor version qualifiers are found, the environment variable +``PY_PYTHON{major}`` (where ``{major}`` is the current major version qualifier +as determined above) can be set to specify the full version. If no such option +is found, the launcher will enumerate the installed Python versions and use +the latest minor release found for the major version, which is likely, +although not guaranteed, to be the most recently installed version in that +family. + +On 64-bit Windows with both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the same +(major.minor) Python version installed, the 64-bit version will always be +preferred. This will be true for both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the +launcher - a 32-bit launcher will prefer to execute a 64-bit Python installation +of the specified version if available. This is so the behavior of the launcher +can be predicted knowing only what versions are installed on the PC and +without regard to the order in which they were installed (i.e., without knowing +whether a 32 or 64-bit version of Python and corresponding launcher was +installed last). As noted above, an optional "-32" suffix can be used on a +version specifier to change this behaviour. + +Examples: + +* If no relevant options are set, the commands ``python`` and + ``python2`` will use the latest Python 2.x version installed and + the command ``python3`` will use the latest Python 3.x installed. + +* The commands ``python3.1`` and ``python2.7`` will not consult any + options at all as the versions are fully specified. + +* If ``PY_PYTHON=3``, the commands ``python`` and ``python3`` will both use + the latest installed Python 3 version. + +* If ``PY_PYTHON=3.1-32``, the command ``python`` will use the 32-bit + implementation of 3.1 whereas the command ``python3`` will use the latest + installed Python (PY_PYTHON was not considered at all as a major + version was specified.) + +* If ``PY_PYTHON=3`` and ``PY_PYTHON3=3.1``, the commands + ``python`` and ``python3`` will both use specifically 3.1 + +In addition to environment variables, the same settings can be configured +in the .INI file used by the launcher. The section in the INI file is +called ``[defaults]`` and the key name will be the same as the +environment variables without the leading ``PY\_`` prefix (and note that +the key names in the INI file are case insensitive.) The contents of +an environment variable will override things specified in the INI file. + +For example: + +* Setting ``PY_PYTHON=3.1`` is equivalent to the INI file containing: + +:: + + [defaults] + python=3.1 + +* Setting ``PY_PYTHON=3`` and ``PY_PYTHON3=3.1`` is equivalent to the INI file + containing: + +:: + + [defaults] + python=3 + python3=3.1 + +Diagnostics +----------- + +If an environment variable ``PYLAUNCH_DEBUG`` is set (to any value), the +launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e. to the console). +While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose *and* terse, it +should allow you to see what versions of Python were located, why a +particular version was chosen and the exact command-line used to execute the +target Python. + + Additional modules ================== @@ -341,3 +603,7 @@ Other resources `A Python for Windows Tutorial <http://www.imladris.com/Scripts/PythonForWindows.html>`_ by Amanda Birmingham, 2004 + :pep:`397` - Python launcher for Windows + The proposal for the launcher to be included in the Python distribution. + + diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst index 850e57d..64b908b 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst @@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ encoding. Encodings are named by strings, such as ``'ascii'``, ``'utf-8'``, registering new encodings that are then available throughout a Python program. If an encoding isn't specified, the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed for your Python installation by calling the -:func:`sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)` function in a customised version of +``sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)`` function in a customised version of :file:`site.py`. Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the default @@ -203,7 +203,7 @@ U+0660 is an Arabic number. The :mod:`codecs` module contains functions to look up existing encodings and register new ones. Unless you want to implement a new encoding, you'll most -often use the :func:`codecs.lookup(encoding)` function, which returns a +often use the ``codecs.lookup(encoding)`` function, which returns a 4-element tuple: ``(encode_func, decode_func, stream_reader, stream_writer)``. * *encode_func* is a function that takes a Unicode string, and returns a 2-tuple @@ -600,7 +600,7 @@ Python code is found to be improperly indented. Changes to Built-in Functions ----------------------------- -A new built-in, :func:`zip(seq1, seq2, ...)`, has been added. :func:`zip` +A new built-in, ``zip(seq1, seq2, ...)``, has been added. :func:`zip` returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element from each of the argument sequences. The difference between :func:`zip` and ``map(None, seq1, seq2)`` is that :func:`map` pads the sequences with ``None`` if the @@ -619,7 +619,7 @@ level, serial)`` For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1, ``sys.version_info`` would be ``(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)``. *level* is a string such as ``"alpha"``, ``"beta"``, or ``"final"`` for a final release. -Dictionaries have an odd new method, :meth:`setdefault(key, default)`, which +Dictionaries have an odd new method, ``setdefault(key, default)``, which behaves similarly to the existing :meth:`get` method. However, if the key is missing, :meth:`setdefault` both returns the value of *default* as :meth:`get` would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value for *key*. Thus, @@ -1038,7 +1038,7 @@ Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the :mod:`socket` module. OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which encrypts the data being sent over a socket. When compiling Python, you can edit :file:`Modules/Setup` to include SSL support, which adds an additional function to the :mod:`socket` -module: :func:`socket.ssl(socket, keyfile, certfile)`, which takes a socket +module: ``socket.ssl(socket, keyfile, certfile)``, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL socket. The :mod:`httplib` and :mod:`urllib` modules were also changed to support ``https://`` URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or SMTP over SSL. diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst index 117af10..b1ab48e 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst @@ -204,7 +204,7 @@ Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a matrix, a list, or any other Python object. Alternatively they can raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or otherwise meaningless. -The built-in :func:`cmp(A,B)` function can use the rich comparison machinery, +The built-in ``cmp(A,B)`` function can use the rich comparison machinery, and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ``"<"``, ``"<="``, ``">"``, ``">="``, ``"=="``, or ``"!="``. If called without the optional third argument, @@ -350,7 +350,7 @@ where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being the most common one, and another being circular references in data structures such as trees. For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of another -function :func:`f(x)` by storing the function's argument and its result in a +function ``f(x)`` by storing the function's argument and its result in a dictionary:: _cache = {} @@ -656,7 +656,7 @@ New and Improved Modules use :mod:`ftplib` to retrieve files and then don't work from behind a firewall. It's deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is - unsuitable for your application or network setup, call :meth:`set_pasv(0)` on + unsuitable for your application or network setup, call ``set_pasv(0)`` on FTP objects to disable passive mode. * Support for raw socket access has been added to the :mod:`socket` module, @@ -666,7 +666,7 @@ New and Improved Modules for displaying timing profiles for Python programs, invoked when the module is run as a script. Contributed by Eric S. Raymond. -* A new implementation-dependent function, :func:`sys._getframe([depth])`, has +* A new implementation-dependent function, ``sys._getframe([depth])``, has been added to return a given frame object from the current call stack. :func:`sys._getframe` returns the frame at the top of the call stack; if the optional integer argument *depth* is supplied, the function returns the frame diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst index 1db1ee7..2e7069d 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst @@ -173,12 +173,12 @@ attributes of their own: * :attr:`__doc__` is the attribute's docstring. -* :meth:`__get__(object)` is a method that retrieves the attribute value from +* ``__get__(object)`` is a method that retrieves the attribute value from *object*. -* :meth:`__set__(object, value)` sets the attribute on *object* to *value*. +* ``__set__(object, value)`` sets the attribute on *object* to *value*. -* :meth:`__delete__(object, value)` deletes the *value* attribute of *object*. +* ``__delete__(object, value)`` deletes the *value* attribute of *object*. For example, when you write ``obj.x``, the steps that Python actually performs are:: @@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ Following this rule, referring to :meth:`D.save` will return :meth:`C.save`, which is the behaviour we're after. This lookup rule is the same as the one followed by Common Lisp. A new built-in function, :func:`super`, provides a way to get at a class's superclasses without having to reimplement Python's -algorithm. The most commonly used form will be :func:`super(class, obj)`, which +algorithm. The most commonly used form will be ``super(class, obj)``, which returns a bound superclass object (not the actual class object). This form will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example, :class:`D`'s :meth:`save` method would look like this:: @@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example, ... :func:`super` can also return unbound superclass objects when called as -:func:`super(class)` or :func:`super(class1, class2)`, but this probably won't +``super(class)`` or ``super(class1, class2)``, but this probably won't often be useful. @@ -314,13 +314,13 @@ code more readable by automatically mapping an attribute access such as ``obj.parent`` into a method call such as ``obj.get_parent``. Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling attribute access. -First, :meth:`__getattr__(attr_name)` is still supported by new-style classes, +First, ``__getattr__(attr_name)`` is still supported by new-style classes, and nothing about it has changed. As before, it will be called when an attempt is made to access ``obj.foo`` and no attribute named ``foo`` is found in the instance's dictionary. New-style classes also support a new method, -:meth:`__getattribute__(attr_name)`. The difference between the two methods is +``__getattribute__(attr_name)``. The difference between the two methods is that :meth:`__getattribute__` is *always* called whenever any attribute is accessed, while the old :meth:`__getattr__` is only called if ``foo`` isn't found in the instance's dictionary. @@ -441,8 +441,8 @@ work, though it really should. In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and :meth:`__getitem__` methods can be limited to classes that really do support random access. The -basic idea of iterators is simple. A new built-in function, :func:`iter(obj)` -or ``iter(C, sentinel)``, is used to get an iterator. :func:`iter(obj)` returns +basic idea of iterators is simple. A new built-in function, ``iter(obj)`` +or ``iter(C, sentinel)``, is used to get an iterator. ``iter(obj)`` returns an iterator for the object *obj*, while ``iter(C, sentinel)`` returns an iterator that will invoke the callable object *C* until it returns *sentinel* to signal that the iterator is done. @@ -793,7 +793,7 @@ further details. Another change is simpler to explain. Since their introduction, Unicode strings have supported an :meth:`encode` method to convert the string to a selected -encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1. A symmetric :meth:`decode([*encoding*])` +encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1. A symmetric ``decode([*encoding*])`` method has been added to 8-bit strings (though not to Unicode strings) in 2.2. :meth:`decode` assumes that the string is in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned by the codec. @@ -1203,7 +1203,7 @@ Some of the more notable changes are: to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file APIs. As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python's choice of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance. On Unix, the locale's character set is - used if :func:`locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)` is available. (Windows support was + used if ``locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)`` is available. (Windows support was contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André Lemburg. Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.) diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst index f4c79e4..f0e48d9 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst @@ -504,8 +504,8 @@ This produces the following output:: ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root logger. -The :func:`getLogger(name)` function is used to get a particular log, creating -it if it doesn't exist yet. :func:`getLogger(None)` returns the root logger. :: +The ``getLogger(name)`` function is used to get a particular log, creating +it if it doesn't exist yet. ``getLogger(None)`` returns the root logger. :: log = logging.getLogger('server') ... @@ -724,10 +724,10 @@ module: objects to it. Additional built-in and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list. -Importer objects must have a single method, :meth:`find_module(fullname, -path=None)`. *fullname* will be a module or package name, e.g. ``string`` or +Importer objects must have a single method, ``find_module(fullname, +path=None)``. *fullname* will be a module or package name, e.g. ``string`` or ``distutils.core``. :meth:`find_module` must return a loader object that has a -single method, :meth:`load_module(fullname)`, that creates and returns the +single method, ``load_module(fullname)``, that creates and returns the corresponding module object. Pseudo-code for Python's new import logic, therefore, looks something like this @@ -935,7 +935,7 @@ Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:: [0, 2, 4] To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice objects -now have a method :meth:`indices(length)` which, given the length of a sequence, +now have a method ``indices(length)`` which, given the length of a sequence, returns a ``(start, stop, step)`` tuple that can be passed directly to :func:`range`. :meth:`indices` handles omitted and out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and this innocuous phrase hides a welter @@ -984,7 +984,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language. * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as described in section :ref:`section-slices` of this document. -* A new built-in function, :func:`sum(iterable, start=0)`, adds up the numeric +* A new built-in function, ``sum(iterable, start=0)``, adds up the numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum. :func:`sum` only accepts numbers, meaning that you can't use it to concatenate a bunch of strings. (Contributed by Alex Martelli.) @@ -998,7 +998,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language. its index, now takes optional *start* and *stop* arguments to limit the search to only part of the list. -* Dictionaries have a new method, :meth:`pop(key[, *default*])`, that returns +* Dictionaries have a new method, ``pop(key[, *default*])``, that returns the value corresponding to *key* and removes that key/value pair from the dictionary. If the requested key isn't present in the dictionary, *default* is returned if it's specified and :exc:`KeyError` raised if it isn't. :: @@ -1020,7 +1020,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language. {} >>> - There's also a new class method, :meth:`dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)`, that + There's also a new class method, ``dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)``, that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied iterator *iterable* and all values set to *value*, defaulting to ``None``. @@ -1093,7 +1093,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language. 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded applications by reducing the switching overhead. Some multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but that's easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number using - :func:`sys.setcheckinterval(N)`. The limit can be retrieved with the new + ``sys.setcheckinterval(N)``. The limit can be retrieved with the new :func:`sys.getcheckinterval` function. * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension types defined @@ -1272,10 +1272,10 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. * Previously the :mod:`doctest` module would only search the docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it now also examines private - ones as well. The :func:`DocTestSuite(` function creates a + ones as well. The :func:`DocTestSuite` function creates a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` object from a set of :mod:`doctest` tests. -* The new :func:`gc.get_referents(object)` function returns a list of all the +* The new ``gc.get_referents(object)`` function returns a list of all the objects referenced by *object*. * The :mod:`getopt` module gained a new function, :func:`gnu_getopt`, that @@ -1347,8 +1347,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. documentation for details. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) -* Two new functions in the :mod:`math` module, :func:`degrees(rads)` and - :func:`radians(degs)`, convert between radians and degrees. Other functions in +* Two new functions in the :mod:`math` module, ``degrees(rads)`` and + ``radians(degs)``, convert between radians and degrees. Other functions in the :mod:`math` module such as :func:`math.sin` and :func:`math.cos` have always required input values measured in radians. Also, an optional *base* argument was added to :func:`math.log` to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases @@ -1405,7 +1405,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. and therefore faster performance. Setting the parser object's :attr:`buffer_text` attribute to :const:`True` will enable buffering. -* The :func:`sample(population, k)` function was added to the :mod:`random` +* The ``sample(population, k)`` function was added to the :mod:`random` module. *population* is a sequence or :class:`xrange` object containing the elements of a population, and :func:`sample` chooses *k* elements from the population without replacing chosen elements. *k* can be any value up to @@ -1451,7 +1451,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. encryption is not believed to be secure. If you need encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are available separately. -* The :mod:`shutil` module gained a :func:`move(src, dest)` function that +* The :mod:`shutil` module gained a ``move(src, dest)`` function that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location. * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the :mod:`signal` @@ -1459,7 +1459,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. platforms. * The :mod:`socket` module now supports timeouts. You can call the - :meth:`settimeout(t)` method on a socket object to set a timeout of *t* seconds. + ``settimeout(t)`` method on a socket object to set a timeout of *t* seconds. Subsequent socket operations that take longer than *t* seconds to complete will abort and raise a :exc:`socket.timeout` exception. @@ -1480,9 +1480,9 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. :program:`tar`\ -format archive files. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.) * The new :mod:`textwrap` module contains functions for wrapping strings - containing paragraphs of text. The :func:`wrap(text, width)` function takes a + containing paragraphs of text. The ``wrap(text, width)`` function takes a string and returns a list containing the text split into lines of no more than - the chosen width. The :func:`fill(text, width)` function returns a single + the chosen width. The ``fill(text, width)`` function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into lines no longer than the chosen width. (As you can guess, :func:`fill` is built on top of :func:`wrap`. For example:: @@ -1903,7 +1903,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include: short int`, ``I`` for :c:type:`unsigned int`, and ``K`` for :c:type:`unsigned long long`. -* A new function, :c:func:`PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char \*key)` was added +* A new function, ``PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)`` was added as shorthand for ``PyObject_DelItem(mapping, PyString_New(key))``. * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently, increasing diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst index 9d339a5..5a28f89 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects Python 2.3 introduced the :mod:`sets` module. C implementations of set data types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types, -:func:`set(iterable)` and :func:`frozenset(iterable)`. They provide high speed +``set(iterable)`` and ``frozenset(iterable)``. They provide high speed operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections, differences, and symmetric differences. :: @@ -346,7 +346,7 @@ returned. PEP 322: Reverse Iteration ========================== -A new built-in function, :func:`reversed(seq)`, takes a sequence and returns an +A new built-in function, ``reversed(seq)``, takes a sequence and returns an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse order. :: >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)): @@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ PEP 324: New subprocess Module The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess, offering different features and different levels of complexity. -:func:`os.system(command)` is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process +``os.system(command)`` is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about escaping the shell's metacharacters). The :mod:`popen2` module offers classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the subprocess, but the naming @@ -431,8 +431,8 @@ The constructor has a number of handy options: Once you've created the :class:`Popen` instance, you can call its :meth:`wait` method to pause until the subprocess has exited, :meth:`poll` to check if it's -exited without pausing, or :meth:`communicate(data)` to send the string *data* -to the subprocess's standard input. :meth:`communicate(data)` then reads any +exited without pausing, or ``communicate(data)`` to send the string *data* +to the subprocess's standard input. ``communicate(data)`` then reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or standard error, returning a tuple ``(stdout_data, stderr_data)``. @@ -749,10 +749,10 @@ numbers in the current locale. The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting: -* :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)` and :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)` +* ``PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)`` and ``PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)`` both convert a string to a C :c:type:`double`. -* :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)` converts a +* ``PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)`` converts a :c:type:`double` to an ASCII string. The code for these functions came from the GLib library @@ -778,7 +778,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language. * Decorators for functions and methods were added (:pep:`318`). * Built-in :func:`set` and :func:`frozenset` types were added (:pep:`218`). - Other new built-ins include the :func:`reversed(seq)` function (:pep:`322`). + Other new built-ins include the ``reversed(seq)`` function (:pep:`322`). * Generator expressions were added (:pep:`289`). @@ -857,7 +857,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language. (All changes to :meth:`sort` contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) -* There is a new built-in function :func:`sorted(iterable)` that works like the +* There is a new built-in function ``sorted(iterable)`` that works like the in-place :meth:`list.sort` method but can be used in expressions. The differences are: @@ -898,8 +898,8 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language. For example, you can now run the Python profiler with ``python -m profile``. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.) -* The :func:`eval(expr, globals, locals)` and :func:`execfile(filename, globals, - locals)` functions and the ``exec`` statement now accept any mapping type +* The ``eval(expr, globals, locals)`` and ``execfile(filename, globals, + locals)`` functions and the ``exec`` statement now accept any mapping type for the *locals* parameter. Previously this had to be a regular Python dictionary. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) @@ -1090,7 +1090,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. Yves Dionne) and new :meth:`deleteacl` and :meth:`myrights` methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin). -* The :mod:`itertools` module gained a :func:`groupby(iterable[, *func*])` +* The :mod:`itertools` module gained a ``groupby(iterable[, *func*])`` function. *iterable* is something that can be iterated over to return a stream of elements, and the optional *func* parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element @@ -1139,7 +1139,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.) -* :mod:`itertools` also gained a function named :func:`tee(iterator, N)` that +* :mod:`itertools` also gained a function named ``tee(iterator, N)`` that returns *N* independent iterators that replicate *iterator*. If *N* is omitted, the default is 2. :: @@ -1177,7 +1177,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. level=0, # Log all messages format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)') - Other additions to the :mod:`logging` package include a :meth:`log(level, msg)` + Other additions to the :mod:`logging` package include a ``log(level, msg)`` convenience method, as well as a :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` class that rotates its log files at a timed interval. The module already had :class:`RotatingFileHandler`, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a @@ -1196,7 +1196,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.) * Two new functions were added to the :mod:`operator` module, - :func:`attrgetter(attr)` and :func:`itemgetter(index)`. Both functions return + ``attrgetter(attr)`` and ``itemgetter(index)``. Both functions return callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors when used with :func:`map` or :func:`sorted`. For example:: @@ -1223,14 +1223,14 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. replacement for :func:`rfc822.formatdate`. You may want to write new e-mail processing code with this in mind. (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.) -* A new :func:`urandom(n)` function was added to the :mod:`os` module, returning +* A new ``urandom(n)`` function was added to the :mod:`os` module, returning a string containing *n* bytes of random data. This function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness such as :file:`/dev/urandom` on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI. (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.) -* Another new function: :func:`os.path.lexists(path)` returns true if the file +* Another new function: ``os.path.lexists(path)`` returns true if the file specified by *path* exists, whether or not it's a symbolic link. This differs - from the existing :func:`os.path.exists(path)` function, which returns false if + from the existing ``os.path.exists(path)`` function, which returns false if *path* is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn't exist. (Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.) @@ -1243,7 +1243,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. * The :mod:`profile` module can now profile C extension functions. (Contributed by Nick Bastin.) -* The :mod:`random` module has a new method called :meth:`getrandbits(N)` that +* The :mod:`random` module has a new method called ``getrandbits(N)`` that returns a long integer *N* bits in length. The existing :meth:`randrange` method now uses :meth:`getrandbits` where appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient. (Contributed by Raymond @@ -1272,7 +1272,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. this, but 2.4 will raise a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception. * Two new functions were added to the :mod:`socket` module. :func:`socketpair` - returns a pair of connected sockets and :func:`getservbyport(port)` looks up the + returns a pair of connected sockets and ``getservbyport(port)`` looks up the service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.) @@ -1454,11 +1454,11 @@ Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are: * Another new macro, :c:macro:`Py_CLEAR(obj)`, decreases the reference count of *obj* and sets *obj* to the null pointer. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.) -* A new function, :c:func:`PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)`, constructs +* A new function, ``PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)``, constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python objects. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) -* A new function, :c:func:`PyDict_Contains(d, k)`, implements fast dictionary +* A new function, ``PyDict_Contains(d, k)``, implements fast dictionary lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst index e059cd5..b91e647 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst @@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ method, where the first argument has been provided. :: popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) ) Another function in the :mod:`functools` module is the -:func:`update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)` function that helps you write well- +``update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)`` function that helps you write well- behaved decorators. :func:`update_wrapper` copies the name, module, and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped function are easier to understand. For example, you might write:: @@ -454,7 +454,7 @@ expression on the right-hand side of an assignment. This means you can write ``val = yield i`` but have to use parentheses when there's an operation, as in ``val = (yield i) + 12``.) -Values are sent into a generator by calling its :meth:`send(value)` method. The +Values are sent into a generator by calling its ``send(value)`` method. The generator's code is then resumed and the :keyword:`yield` expression returns the specified *value*. If the regular :meth:`next` method is called, the :keyword:`yield` returns :const:`None`. @@ -496,7 +496,7 @@ function. In addition to :meth:`send`, there are two other new methods on generators: -* :meth:`throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)` is used to raise an exception +* ``throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)`` is used to raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the :keyword:`yield` expression where the generator's execution is paused. @@ -660,7 +660,7 @@ A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is: * The code in *BLOCK* is executed. -* If *BLOCK* raises an exception, the :meth:`__exit__(type, value, traceback)` +* If *BLOCK* raises an exception, the ``__exit__(type, value, traceback)`` is called with the exception details, the same values returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`. The method's return value controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and ``True`` will result @@ -773,7 +773,7 @@ decorator as:: with db_transaction(db) as cursor: ... -The :mod:`contextlib` module also has a :func:`nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)` function +The :mod:`contextlib` module also has a ``nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)`` function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to write nested ':keyword:`with`' statements. In this example, the single ':keyword:`with`' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:: @@ -782,7 +782,7 @@ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:: with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked): ... -Finally, the :func:`closing(object)` function returns *object* so that it can be +Finally, the ``closing(object)`` function returns *object* so that it can be bound to a variable, and calls ``object.close`` at the end of the block. :: import urllib, sys @@ -955,7 +955,7 @@ interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a A corresponding :attr:`nb_index` slot was added to the C-level :c:type:`PyNumberMethods` structure to let C extensions implement this protocol. -:c:func:`PyNumber_Index(obj)` can be used in extension code to call the +``PyNumber_Index(obj)`` can be used in extension code to call the :meth:`__index__` function and retrieve its result. @@ -976,7 +976,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language. * The :class:`dict` type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default value when a key isn't contained in the dictionary. When a key isn't found, the - dictionary's :meth:`__missing__(key)` method will be called. This hook is used + dictionary's ``__missing__(key)`` method will be called. This hook is used to implement the new :class:`defaultdict` class in the :mod:`collections` module. The following example defines a dictionary that returns zero for any missing key:: @@ -989,16 +989,16 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language. print d[1], d[2] # Prints 1, 2 print d[3], d[4] # Prints 0, 0 -* Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new :meth:`partition(sep)` and - :meth:`rpartition(sep)` methods that simplify a common use case. +* Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ``partition(sep)`` and + ``rpartition(sep)`` methods that simplify a common use case. - The :meth:`find(S)` method is often used to get an index which is then used to + The ``find(S)`` method is often used to get an index which is then used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and after the separator. - :meth:`partition(sep)` condenses this pattern into a single method call that + ``partition(sep)`` condenses this pattern into a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the substring after the separator. If the separator isn't found, the first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two elements - are empty. :meth:`rpartition(sep)` also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching + are empty. ``rpartition(sep)`` also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching from the end of the string; the ``r`` stands for 'reverse'. Some examples:: @@ -1157,7 +1157,7 @@ marked in the following list. .. Patch 1313939, 1359618 -* The :func:`long(str, base)` function is now faster on long digit strings +* The ``long(str, base)`` function is now faster on long digit strings because fewer intermediate results are calculated. The peak is for strings of around 800--1000 digits where the function is 6 times faster. (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) @@ -1268,7 +1268,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.) * The :class:`deque` double-ended queue type supplied by the :mod:`collections` - module now has a :meth:`remove(value)` method that removes the first occurrence + module now has a ``remove(value)`` method that removes the first occurrence of *value* in the queue, raising :exc:`ValueError` if the value isn't found. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) @@ -1291,7 +1291,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. * The :mod:`csv` module, which parses files in comma-separated value format, received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes. You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the - :meth:`csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)` function; omitting the *new_limit* + ``csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)`` function; omitting the *new_limit* argument will return the currently-set limit. The :class:`reader` class now has a :attr:`line_num` attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so :attr:`line_num` is not @@ -1308,7 +1308,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.) * The :class:`datetime` class in the :mod:`datetime` module now has a - :meth:`strptime(string, format)` method for parsing date strings, contributed + ``strptime(string, format)`` method for parsing date strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as :func:`time.strptime` and :func:`time.strftime`:: @@ -1403,7 +1403,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. * The :mod:`mailbox` module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them. A new set of classes that include :class:`mbox`, :class:`MH`, and :class:`Maildir` are used to read mailboxes, and - have an :meth:`add(message)` method to add messages, :meth:`remove(key)` to + have an ``add(message)`` method to add messages, ``remove(key)`` to remove messages, and :meth:`lock`/:meth:`unlock` to lock/unlock the mailbox. The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:: @@ -1458,7 +1458,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. :func:`wait4` return additional information. :func:`wait3` doesn't take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of *process-id*, *exit-status*, *resource-usage* as returned from the - :func:`resource.getrusage` function. :func:`wait4(pid)` does take a process ID. + :func:`resource.getrusage` function. ``wait4(pid)`` does take a process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.) On FreeBSD, the :func:`os.stat` function now returns times with nanosecond @@ -1532,8 +1532,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. In Python code, netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ``(pid, group_mask)``. - Two new methods on socket objects, :meth:`recv_into(buffer)` and - :meth:`recvfrom_into(buffer)`, store the received data in an object that + Two new methods on socket objects, ``recv_into(buffer)`` and + ``recvfrom_into(buffer)``, store the received data in an object that supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string. This means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file. @@ -1557,8 +1557,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. year, number, name = s.unpack(data) You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the - :meth:`pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)` and :meth:`unpack_from(buffer, - offset)` methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a memory- + ``pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)`` and ``unpack_from(buffer, + offset)`` methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a memory- mapped file. (:class:`Struct` objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed @@ -1592,7 +1592,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. .. patch 918101 * The :mod:`threading` module now lets you set the stack size used when new - threads are created. The :func:`stack_size([*size*])` function returns the + threads are created. The ``stack_size([*size*])`` function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying the optional *size* parameter sets a new value. Not all platforms support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.) @@ -1911,7 +1911,7 @@ differently. :: h = hashlib.new('md5') # Provide algorithm as a string Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before: -:meth:`update(string)` hashes the specified string into the current digest +``update(string)`` hashes the specified string into the current digest state, :meth:`digest` and :meth:`hexdigest` return the digest value as a binary string or a string of hex digits, and :meth:`copy` returns a new hashing object with the same digest state. @@ -2168,20 +2168,20 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include: * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be used. - :c:func:`Py_LOCAL(type)` declares the function as returning a value of the + ``Py_LOCAL(type)`` declares the function as returning a value of the specified *type* and uses a fast-calling qualifier. - :c:func:`Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)` does the same thing and also requests the + ``Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)`` does the same thing and also requests the function be inlined. If :c:func:`PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE` is defined before :file:`python.h` is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code faster. (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) -* :c:func:`PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)` can now accept a tuple of base +* ``PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)`` can now accept a tuple of base classes as its *base* argument. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.) * The :c:func:`PyErr_Warn` function for issuing warnings is now deprecated in - favour of :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)` which lets you + favour of ``PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)`` which lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this function and the caller. A *stacklevel* of 1 is the function calling :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, 2 is the function above that, and so forth. (Added by Neal Norwitz.) diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst index 55b65ba..762977c 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst @@ -812,7 +812,7 @@ Builtins * The :func:`round` function rounding strategy and return type have changed. Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest even result instead of away from zero. (For example, ``round(2.5)`` now - returns ``2`` rather than ``3``.) :func:`round(x[, n])` now + returns ``2`` rather than ``3``.) ``round(x[, n])`` now delegates to ``x.__round__([n])`` instead of always returning a float. It generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and a value of the same type as ``x`` when called with two diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.2.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.2.rst index 0553ec3..99827ff 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.2.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.2.rst @@ -270,7 +270,7 @@ launch of four parallel threads for copying files:: e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt') e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt') e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt') - e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt') + e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt') .. seealso:: @@ -2354,7 +2354,7 @@ A number of small performance enhancements have been added: (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`3001`.) * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the :meth:`split`, - :meth:`splitlines` and :meth:`replace` methods on + :meth:`rsplit`, :meth:`splitlines` and :meth:`replace` methods on :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray` and :class:`str` objects. Likewise, the algorithm is also used by :meth:`rfind`, :meth:`rindex`, :meth:`rsplit` and :meth:`rpartition`. @@ -2471,14 +2471,14 @@ Code Repository In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at http://svn.python.org there is now a `Mercurial <http://mercurial.selenic.com/>`_ repository at -http://hg.python.org/\. +http://hg.python.org/ . After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary repository. This distributed version control system should make it easier for members of the community to create and share external changesets. See :pep:`385` for details. -To learn the new version control system, see the `tutorial by Joel +To learn to use the new version control system, see the `tutorial by Joel Spolsky <http://hginit.com>`_ or the `Guide to Mercurial Workflows <http://mercurial.selenic.com/guide/>`_. diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.3.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.3.rst new file mode 100644 index 0000000..caa838f --- /dev/null +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.3.rst @@ -0,0 +1,2028 @@ +**************************** + What's New In Python 3.3 +**************************** + +:Author: Raymond Hettinger +:Release: |release| +:Date: |today| + +.. Rules for maintenance: + + * Anyone can add text to this document. Do not spend very much time + on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably + get rewritten to some degree. + + * The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add + changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to + Misc/NEWS than to this file. + + * This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness + is the purpose of Misc/NEWS. Some changes I consider too small + or esoteric to include. If such a change is added to the text, + I'll just remove it. (This is another reason you shouldn't spend + too much time on writing your addition.) + + * If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the + maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or + section. + + * It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change. For + example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the + socket module." The maintainer will research the change and + write the necessary text. + + * You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not + necessary (especially when a final release is some months away). + + * Credit the author of a patch or bugfix. Just the name is + sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary. + + * It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment: + + XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket + module. + (Contributed by P.Y. Developer in :issue:`12345`.) + + This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the Mercurial log + when researching a change. + +This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2. + +.. note:: Beta users should be aware that this document is currently in + draft form. It will be updated substantially as Python 3.3 moves towards + release, so it's worth checking back even after reading earlier versions. + + +Summary -- Release highlights +============================= + +.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.3. + Brevity is key. + +New syntax features: + +* New ``yield from`` expression for :ref:`generator delegation <pep-380>`. +* The ``u'unicode'`` syntax is accepted again for :class:`str` objects. + +New library modules: + +* :mod:`faulthandler` (helps debugging low-level crashes) +* :mod:`ipaddress` (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks) +* :mod:`lzma` (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm) +* :mod:`venv` (Python :ref:`virtual environments <pep-405>`, as in the + popular ``virtualenv`` package) + +New built-in features: + +* Reworked :ref:`I/O exception hierarchy <pep-3151>`. + +Implementation improvements: + +* Rewritten :ref:`import machinery <importlib>` based on :mod:`importlib`. +* More compact :ref:`unicode strings <pep-393>`. +* More compact :ref:`attribute dictionaries <pep-412>`. + +Security improvements: + +* Hash randomization is switched on by default. + +Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes. + + +.. _pep-405: + +PEP 405: Virtual Environments +============================= + +:pep:`405` - Python Virtual Environments + PEP written by Carl Meyer, implemented by Carl Meyer and Vinay Sajip. + +Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a +system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance. Virtual environments +have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally-installed +libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site +packages. Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular +``virtualenv`` third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration +with the interpreter core. + +This PEP adds the :mod:`venv` module for programmatic access, and the +:ref:`pyvenv <scripts-pyvenv>` script for command-line access and +administration. The Python interpreter becomes aware of a ``pvenv.cfg`` +file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment's directory +tree. + + +PEP 420: Namespace Packages +=========================== + +Native support for package directories that don't require ``__init__.py`` +marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by +various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in +:pep:`420`) + + +.. _pep-3118-update: + +PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation +========================================================================= + +:issue:`10181` - memoryview bug fixes and features. + Written by Stefan Krah. + +The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and +lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct +that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that +crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional +input have been fixed. + +The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() +that checks the consumer's request type. Many new features have been +added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays +and arrays with suboffsets. + +The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities +for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into +basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and +multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained. + +Features +-------- + +* All native single character format specifiers in struct module syntax + (optionally prefixed with '@') are now supported. + +* With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format and + shape of C-contiguous arrays. + +* Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array type. + +* Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type. + +* One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats B, + b or c are now hashable. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13411`) + +* Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported. For example, it + is now possible to reverse a memoryview in O(1) by using a negative step. + +API changes +----------- + +* The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64. + +* The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now + an empty tuple instead of None. + +* Accessing a memoryview element with format 'B' (unsigned bytes) + now returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax). + For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to 'c' first. + +* memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the operands + and compare all array elements by value. All format strings in struct + module syntax are supported. Views with unrecognised format strings + are still permitted, but will always compare as unequal, regardless + of view contents. + +* For further changes see `Build and C API Changes`_ and `Porting C code`_ . + +.. _pep-393: + +PEP 393: Flexible String Representation +======================================= + +The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal +representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal +(1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string. This allows a space-efficient +representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all +systems. For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may +exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out. + +On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change. + +On the C API side, PEP 393 is fully backward compatible. The legacy API +should remain available at least five years. Applications using the legacy +API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use +a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each +string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage). + +Functionality +------------- + +Changes introduced by :pep:`393` are the following: + +* Python now always supports the full range of Unicode codepoints, including + non-BMP ones (i.e. from ``U+0000`` to ``U+10FFFF``). The distinction between + narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide + build, even under Windows. + +* With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow builds have + also been fixed, for example: + + * :func:`len` now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters, + so ``len('\U0010FFFF') == 1``; + + * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, + so ``'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'``; + + * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected value, + so ``'\U0010FFFF'[0]`` now returns ``'\U0010FFFF'`` and not ``'\uDBFF'``; + + * all other functions in the standard library now correctly handle + non-BMP codepoints. + +* The value of :data:`sys.maxunicode` is now always ``1114111`` (``0x10FFFF`` + in hexadecimal). The :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetMax` function still returns + either ``0xFFFF`` or ``0x10FFFF`` for backward compatibility, and it should + not be used with the new Unicode API (see :issue:`13054`). + +* The :file:`./configure` flag ``--with-wide-unicode`` has been removed. + +Performance and resource usage +------------------------------ + +The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest codepoint in the string: + +* pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (``U+0000-U+00FF``) use 1 byte per codepoint; + +* BMP strings (``U+0000-U+FFFF``) use 2 bytes per codepoint; + +* non-BMP strings (``U+10000-U+10FFFF``) use 4 bytes per codepoint. + +The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string +storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former +wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII +even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human +language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, +etc.). We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU +cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of +Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little +bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for +details). + + +.. _pep-3151: + +PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy +===================================================== + +:pep:`3151` - Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy + PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou. + +The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both +simplified and finer-grained. + +You don't have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception +type between :exc:`OSError`, :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`EnvironmentError`, +:exc:`WindowsError`, :exc:`mmap.error`, :exc:`socket.error` or +:exc:`select.error`. All these exception types are now only one: +:exc:`OSError`. The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility +reasons. + +Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition. Instead of +inspecting the ``errno`` attribute (or ``args[0]``) for a particular +constant from the :mod:`errno` module, you can catch the adequate +:exc:`OSError` subclass. The available subclasses are the following: + +* :exc:`BlockingIOError` +* :exc:`ChildProcessError` +* :exc:`ConnectionError` +* :exc:`FileExistsError` +* :exc:`FileNotFoundError` +* :exc:`InterruptedError` +* :exc:`IsADirectoryError` +* :exc:`NotADirectoryError` +* :exc:`PermissionError` +* :exc:`ProcessLookupError` +* :exc:`TimeoutError` + +And the :exc:`ConnectionError` itself has finer-grained subclasses: + +* :exc:`BrokenPipeError` +* :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError` +* :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError` +* :exc:`ConnectionResetError` + +Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the :mod:`errno` can now be +avoided. For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:: + + from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM + + try: + with open("document.txt") as f: + content = f.read() + except IOError as err: + if err.errno == ENOENT: + print("document.txt file is missing") + elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM): + print("You are not allowed to read document.txt") + else: + raise + +can now be written without the :mod:`errno` import and without manual +inspection of exception attributes:: + + try: + with open("document.txt") as f: + content = f.read() + except FileNotFoundError: + print("document.txt file is missing") + except PermissionError: + print("You are not allowed to read document.txt") + + +.. _pep-380: + +PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator +================================================ + +:pep:`380` - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator + PEP written by Greg Ewing. + +PEP 380 adds the ``yield from`` expression, allowing a generator to delegate +part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code +containing 'yield' to be factored out and placed in another generator. +Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the +value is made available to the delegating generator. + +While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the ``yield +from`` expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators. + +For simple iterators, ``yield from iterable`` is essentially just a shortened +form of ``for item in iterable: yield item``:: + + >>> def g(x): + ... yield from range(x, 0, -1) + ... yield from range(x) + ... + >>> list(g(5)) + [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4] + +However, unlike an ordinary loop, ``yield from`` allows subgenerators to +receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and +return a final value to the outer generator:: + + >>> def accumulate(start=0): + ... tally = start + ... while 1: + ... next = yield + ... if next is None: + ... return tally + ... tally += next + ... + >>> def gather_tallies(tallies, start=0): + ... while 1: + ... tally = yield from accumulate() + ... tallies.append(tally) + ... + >>> tallies = [] + >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies) + >>> next(acc) # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values + >>> for i in range(10): + ... acc.send(i) + ... + >>> acc.send(None) # Finish the first tally + >>> for i in range(5): + ... acc.send(i) + ... + >>> acc.send(None) # Finish the second tally + >>> tallies + [45, 10] + +The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are +designed to be used with the ``send`` and ``throw`` methods to be split into +multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into +multiple subfunctions. + +(Implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan +Kelly and Nick Coghlan, documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and +Nick Coghlan) + + +PEP 409: Suppressing exception context +====================================== + +:pep:`409` - Suppressing exception context + PEP written by Ethan Furman, implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick Coghlan. + +PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained +exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in +applications that convert between exception types:: + + >>> class D: + ... def __init__(self, extra): + ... self._extra_attributes = extra + ... def __getattr__(self, attr): + ... try: + ... return self._extra_attributes[attr] + ... except KeyError: + ... raise AttributeError(attr) from None + ... + >>> D({}).x + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__ + AttributeError: x + +Without the ``from None`` suffix to suppress the cause, the original +exception would be displayed by default:: + + >>> class C: + ... def __init__(self, extra): + ... self._extra_attributes = extra + ... def __getattr__(self, attr): + ... try: + ... return self._extra_attributes[attr] + ... except KeyError: + ... raise AttributeError(attr) + ... + >>> C({}).x + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__ + KeyError: 'x' + + During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred: + + Traceback (most recent call last): + File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> + File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__ + AttributeError: x + +No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains +available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly +suppressed valuable underlying details):: + + >>> try: + ... D({}).x + ... except AttributeError as exc: + ... print(repr(exc.__context__)) + ... + KeyError('x',) + + +PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals +====================================== + +:pep:`414` - Explicit Unicode literals + PEP written by Armin Ronacher. + +To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications +that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the +"``u``" prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance +in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical +changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on +the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default +separation of binary and text data). + + +PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions +================================================== + +:pep:`3155` - Qualified name for classes and functions + PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou. + +Functions and class objects have a new ``__qualname__`` attribute representing +the "path" from the module top-level to their definition. For global functions +and classes, this is the same as ``__name__``. For other functions and classes, +it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and +how they might be accessible from the global scope. + +Example with (non-bound) methods:: + + >>> class C: + ... def meth(self): + ... pass + >>> C.meth.__name__ + 'meth' + >>> C.meth.__qualname__ + 'C.meth' + +Example with nested classes:: + + >>> class C: + ... class D: + ... def meth(self): + ... pass + ... + >>> C.D.__name__ + 'D' + >>> C.D.__qualname__ + 'C.D' + >>> C.D.meth.__name__ + 'meth' + >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__ + 'C.D.meth' + +Example with nested functions:: + + >>> def outer(): + ... def inner(): + ... pass + ... return inner + ... + >>> outer().__name__ + 'inner' + >>> outer().__qualname__ + 'outer.<locals>.inner' + +The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the +new, more precise information:: + + >>> str(C.D) + "<class '__main__.C.D'>" + >>> str(C.D.meth) + '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>' + + +.. _pep-412: + +PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary +=============================== + +:pep:`412` - Key-Sharing Dictionary + PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon. + +Dictionaries used for the storage of objects' attributes are now able to +share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part +which stores the keys and their respective hashes). This reduces the memory +consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types. + + +PEP 362: Function Signature Object +================================== + +:pep:`362`: - Function Signature Object + PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon Seo. + Implemented by Yury Selivanov. + +A new function :func:`inspect.signature` makes introspection of python +callables easy and straightforward. A broad range of callables is supported: +python functions, decorated or not, classes, and :func:`functools.partial` +objects. New classes :class:`inspect.Signature`, :class:`inspect.Parameter` +and :class:`inspect.BoundArguments` hold information about the call signatures, +such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, +which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates +or amends calling signatures or arguments. + + +PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation +================================== + +:pep:`421` - Adding sys.implementation + PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow. + +A new attribute on the :mod:`sys` module exposes details specific to the +implementation of the currently running interpreter. The initial set of +attributes on :attr:`sys.implementation` are ``name``, ``version``, +``hexversion``, and ``cache_tag``. + +The intention of ``sys.implementation`` is to consolidate into one namespace +the implementation-specific data used by the standard library. This allows +different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base +much more easily. In its initial state, ``sys.implementation`` holds only a +small portion of the implementation-specific data. Over time that ratio will +shift in order to make the standard library more portable. + +One example of improved standard library portability is ``cache_tag``. As of +Python 3.3, ``sys.implementation.cache_tag`` is used by :mod:`importlib` to +support :pep:`3147` compliance. Any Python implementation that uses +``importlib`` for its built-in import system may use ``cache_tag`` to control +the caching behavior for modules. + +SimpleNamespace +--------------- + +The implementation of ``sys.implementation`` also introduces a new type to +Python: :class:`types.SimpleNamespace`. In contrast to a mapping-based +namespace, like :class:`dict`, ``SimpleNamespace`` is attribute-based, like +:class:`object`. However, unlike ``object``, ``SimpleNamespace`` instances +are writable. This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace +through normal attribute access. + + +.. _importlib: + +Using importlib as the Implementation of Import +=============================================== +:issue:`2377` - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ +:issue:`13959` - Re-implement parts of :mod:`imp` in pure Python +:issue:`14605` - Make import machinery explicit +:issue:`14646` - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__ + +(Written by Brett Cannon) + +The :func:`__import__` function is now powered by :func:`importlib.__import__`. +This work leads to the completion of "phase 2" of :pep:`302`. There are +multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the +machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden +within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs +supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in +import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for +future growth to occur. + +For the common user, this change should result in no visible change in +semantics. Any possible changes required in one's code to handle this change +should read the `Porting Python code`_ section of this document to see what +needs to be changed, but it will only affect those that currently manipulate +import or try calling it programmatically. + +New APIs +-------- +One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into +making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were +once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the :mod:`importlib` package. + +The abstract base classes defined in :mod:`importlib.abc` have been expanded +to properly delineate between :term:`meta path finders <meta path finder>` +and :term:`path entry finders <path entry finder>` by introducing +:class:`importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder` and +:class:`importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder`, respectively. The old ABC of +:class:`importlib.abc.Finder` is now only provided for backwards-compatibility +and does not enforce any method requirements. + +In terms of finders, :class:`importlib.machinery.FileFinder` exposes the +mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously +this class was an implicit member of :attr:`sys.path_hooks`. + +For loaders, the new abstract base class :class:`importlib.abc.FileLoader` helps +write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module's +code. The loader for source files +(:class:`importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader`), sourceless bytecode files +(:class:`importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader`), and extension modules +(:class:`importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader`) are now available for +direct use. + +:exc:`ImportError` now has ``name`` and ``path`` attributes which are set when +there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also +provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the +module's name. + +The :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` function will now call the method with +the same name on all finders cached in :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` to help +clean up any stored state as necessary. + +Visible Changes +--------------- +[For potential required changes to code, see the `Porting Python code`_ +section] + +Beyond the expanse of what :mod:`importlib` now exposes, there are other +visible changes to import. The biggest is that :attr:`sys.meta_path` and +:attr:`sys.path_hooks` now store all of the meta path finders and path entry +hooks used by import. Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within +the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can +now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one's needs. + +Another change is that all modules have a ``__loader__`` attribute, storing the +loader used to create the module. :pep:`302` has been updated to make this +attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party +loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the +attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load. + +Loaders are also now expected to set the ``__package__`` attribute from +:pep:`366`. Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders +from :mod:`importlib` and import itself is setting the attribute post-load. + +``None`` is now inserted into :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` when no finder +can be found on :attr:`sys.path_hooks`. Since :class:`imp.NullImporter` is not +directly exposed on :attr:`sys.path_hooks` it could no longer be relied upon to +always be available to use as a value representing no finder found. + +All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into +consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about +in the `Porting Python code`_ section of this document. + + +New Email Package Features +========================== + +Policy Framework +---------------- + +The email package now has a :mod:`~email.policy` framework. A +:class:`~email.policy.Policy` is an object with several methods and properties +that control how the email package behaves. The primary policy for Python 3.3 +is the :class:`~email.policy.Compat32` policy, which provides backward +compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2. A ``policy`` can be +specified when an email message is parsed by a :mod:`~email.parser`, or when a +:class:`~email.message.Message` object is created, or when an email is +serialized using a :mod:`~email.generator`. Unless overridden, a policy passed +to a ``parser`` is inherited by all the ``Message`` object and sub-objects +created by the ``parser``. By default a ``generator`` will use the policy of +the ``Message`` object it is serializing. The default policy is +:data:`~email.policy.compat32`. + +The minimum set of controls implemented by all ``policy`` objects are: + + =============== ======================================================= + max_line_length The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s), + individual lines may have when a ``Message`` is + serialized. Defaults to 78. + + linesep The character used to separate individual lines when a + ``Message`` is serialized. Defaults to ``\n``. + + cte_type ``7bit`` or ``8bit``. ``8bit`` applies only to a + ``Bytes`` ``generator``, and means that non-ASCII may + be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it + exists in the original input). + + raise_on_defect Causes a ``parser`` to raise error when defects are + encountered instead of adding them to the ``Message`` + object's ``defects`` list. + =============== ======================================================= + +A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the +:meth:`~email.policy.Policy.clone` method of policy objects. ``clone`` takes +any of the above controls as keyword arguments. Any control not specified in +the call retains its default value. Thus you can create a policy that uses +``\r\n`` linesep characters like this:: + + mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n') + +Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by +your application simpler. Instead of having to remember to specify +``linesep='\r\n'`` in all the places you call a ``generator``, you can specify +it once, when you set the policy used by the ``parser`` or the ``Message``, +whichever your program uses to create ``Message`` objects. On the other hand, +if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the +parameters in the appropriate ``generator`` call. Or you can have custom +policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create +the ``generator``. + + +Provisional Policy with New Header API +-------------------------------------- + +While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for +introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new +features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility +for those who do not use the new policies. Because the new policies introduce a +new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a :term:`provisional policy +<provisional package>`. Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including +removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers. + +The new policies are instances of :class:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy`, +and add the following additional controls: + + =============== ======================================================= + refold_source Controls whether or not headers parsed by a + :mod:`~email.parser` are refolded by the + :mod:`~email.generator`. It can be ``none``, ``long``, + or ``all``. The default is ``long``, which means that + source headers with a line longer than + ``max_line_length`` get refolded. ``none`` means no + line get refolded, and ``all`` means that all lines + get refolded. + + header_factory A callable that take a ``name`` and ``value`` and + produces a custom header object. + =============== ======================================================= + +The ``header_factory`` is the key to the new features provided by the new +policies. When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from +a ``Message`` object is an object produced by the ``header_factory``, and any +time you set a header on a ``Message`` it becomes an object produced by +``header_factory``. All such header objects have a ``name`` attribute equal +to the header name. Address and Date headers have additional attributes +that give you access to the parsed data of the header. This means you can now +do things like this:: + + >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP) + >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>' + >>> m['to'] + 'Éric <foo@example.com>' + >>> m['to'].addresses + (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),) + >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username + 'foo' + >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name + 'Éric' + >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime() + >>> m['Date'].datetime + datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT')) + >>> m['Date'] + 'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400' + >>> print(m) + To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com> + Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400 + +You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as +``utf-8`` when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed +directly, you get the unicode version. This eliminates any need to deal with +the :mod:`email.header` :meth:`~email.header.decode_header` or +:meth:`~email.header.make_header` functions. + +You can also create addresses from parts:: + + >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'), + ... Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]), + ... Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')] + >>> print(m) + To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com> + Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400 + cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com> + +Decoding to unicode is done automatically:: + + >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m)) + >>> m2['to'] + 'Éric <foo@example.com>' + +When you parse a message, you can use the ``addresses`` and ``groups`` +attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual +addresses:: + + >>> m2['cc'].addresses + (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com')) + >>> m2['cc'].groups + (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),)) + +In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the +way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings, and the email +package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC +standard Content Transfer Encodings. + + +Other Language Changes +====================== + +Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: + +* Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences. + Both :func:`unicodedata.lookup()` and ``'\N{...}'`` now resolve name aliases, + and :func:`unicodedata.lookup()` resolves named sequences too. + + (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in :issue:`12753`) + +* Equality comparisons on :func:`range` objects now return a result reflecting + the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects. + + (:issue:`13201`) + +* The ``count()``, ``find()``, ``rfind()``, ``index()`` and ``rindex()`` + methods of :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` objects now accept an + integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument. + + (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in :issue:`12170`) + +* New methods have been added to :class:`list` and :class:`bytearray`: + ``copy()`` and ``clear()``. + + (:issue:`10516`) + +* Raw bytes literals can now be written ``rb"..."`` as well as ``br"..."``. + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13748`.) + +* :meth:`dict.setdefault` now does only one lookup for the given key, making + it atomic when used with built-in types. + (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in :issue:`13521`.) + + +.. XXX mention new error messages for passing wrong number of arguments to functions + + +A Finer-Grained Import Lock +=========================== + +Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock. +This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module +would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect. +Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the +:c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock` C API function. + +In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock. This correctly +serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing +the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the +aforementioned annoyances. + +(contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`9260`.) + + +Builtin functions and types +=========================== + +* :func:`open` gets a new *opener* parameter: the underlying file descriptor + for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with (*file*, + *flags*). It can be used to use custom flags like :data:`os.O_CLOEXEC` for + example. The ``'x'`` mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if + the file already exists. +* :func:`print`: added the *flush* keyword argument. If the *flush* keyword + argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed. +* :func:`hash`: hash randomization is enabled by default, see + :meth:`object.__hash__` and :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED`. +* The :class:`str` type gets a new :meth:`~str.casefold` method: return a + casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless + matching. For example, ``'ß'.casefold()`` returns ``'ss'``. +* The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to better + explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide specific + documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence types + (:issue:`4966`) + +New Modules +=========== + +faulthandler +------------ + +This new debug module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, +on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user +signal. Call :func:`faulthandler.enable` to install fault handlers for the +:const:`SIGSEGV`, :const:`SIGFPE`, :const:`SIGABRT`, :const:`SIGBUS`, and +:const:`SIGILL` signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the +:envvar:`PYTHONFAULTHANDLER` environment variable or by using :option:`-X` +``faulthandler`` command line option. + +Example of a segmentation fault on Linux: :: + + $ python -q -X faulthandler + >>> import ctypes + >>> ctypes.string_at(0) + Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault + + Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700: + File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at + File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module> + Segmentation fault + + +ipaddress +--------- + +The new :mod:`ipaddress` module provides tools for creating and manipulating +objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and interfaces (i.e. +an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet). + +(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in :pep:`3144`) + +lzma +---- + +The newly-added :mod:`lzma` module provides data compression and decompression +using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ``.xz`` and ``.lzma`` +file formats. + +(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in :issue:`6715`) + + +Improved Modules +================ + +abc +--- + +Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with +abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is +now to provide :attr:`__isabstractmethod__` as a dynamically updated +property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly. + + * :class:`abc.abstractproperty` has been deprecated, use :class:`property` + with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + * :class:`abc.abstractclassmethod` has been deprecated, use + :class:`classmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + * :class:`abc.abstractstaticmethod` has been deprecated, use + :class:`staticmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + +(Contributed by Darren Dale in :issue:`11610`) + +array +----- + +The :mod:`array` module supports the :c:type:`long long` type using ``q`` and +``Q`` type codes. + +(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in :issue:`1172711`) + + +base64, binascii +---------------- + +ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the +modern interface. For example, ``base64.b64decode('YWJj')`` returns ``b'abc'``. + + +bz2 +--- + +The :mod:`bz2` module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several +new features have been added: + +* New :func:`bz2.open` function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or + text mode. + +* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like + objects, by means of its constructor's *fileobj* argument. + + (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in :issue:`5863`) + +* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` and :func:`bz2.decompress` can now decompress + multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the :program:`pbzip2` tool). + :class:`bz2.BZ2File` can now also be used to create this type of file, using + the ``'a'`` (append) mode. + + (Contributed by Nir Aides in :issue:`1625`) + +* :class:`bz2.BZ2File` now implements all of the :class:`io.BufferedIOBase` API, + except for the :meth:`detach` and :meth:`truncate` methods. + + +codecs +------ + +The :mod:`~encodings.mbcs` codec has been rewritten to handle correctly +``replace`` and ``ignore`` error handlers on all Windows versions. The +:mod:`~encodings.mbcs` codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only +``replace`` to encode and ``ignore`` to decode. + +A new Windows-only codec has been added: ``cp65001`` (:issue:`13216`). It is the +Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ``CP_UTF8``). For example, it is used +by ``sys.stdout`` if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using +``chcp 65001`` command). + +Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster. They only ignore the first +byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, ``b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', +'replace')`` now returns a ``\n`` after the replacement character. + +(:issue:`12016`) + +Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their +encode() methods. For example:: + + $ ./python -q + >>> import codecs + >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict') + >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.') + b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.' + +This example gives ``b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'`` with older Python +versions. + +(:issue:`12100`) + +The ``unicode_internal`` codec has been deprecated. + + +collections +----------- + +Addition of a new :class:`~collections.ChainMap` class to allow treating a +number of mappings as a single unit. + +(Written by Raymond Hettinger for :issue:`11089`, made public in +:issue:`11297`) + +The abstract base classes have been moved in a new :mod:`collections.abc` +module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete +collections classes. Aliases for ABCs are still present in the +:mod:`collections` module to preserve existing imports. + +(:issue:`11085`) + +.. XXX addition of __slots__ to ABCs not recorded here: internal detail + + +contextlib +---------- + +:class:`~collections.ExitStack` now provides a solid foundation for +programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup +functionality. Unlike the previous ``contextlib.nested`` API (which was +deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly +regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in +their ``__init__`` method (for example, file objects) or in their +``__enter__`` method (for example, synchronisation objects from the +:mod:`threading` module). + +(:issue:`13585`) + + +crypt +----- + +Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the :func:`~crypt.mksalt` +function to the :mod:`crypt` module. + +(:issue:`10924`) + +curses +------ + + * If the :mod:`curses` module is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode + functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g. + :c:func:`waddwstr`), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g. :c:func:`waddstr`). + * Use the locale encoding instead of ``utf-8`` to encode Unicode strings. + * :class:`curses.window` has a new :attr:`curses.window.encoding` attribute. + * The :class:`curses.window` class has a new :meth:`~curses.window.get_wch` + method to get a wide character + * The :mod:`curses` module has a new :meth:`~curses.unget_wch` function to + push a wide character so the next :meth:`~curses.window.get_wch` will return + it + +(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in :issue:`6755`) + +datetime +-------- + + * Equality comparisons between naive and aware :class:`~datetime.datetime` + instances don't raise :exc:`TypeError`. + * New :meth:`datetime.datetime.timestamp` method: Return POSIX timestamp + corresponding to the :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance. + * The :meth:`datetime.datetime.strftime` method supports formatting years + older than 1000. + * XXX The :meth:`datetime.datetime.astimezone` method can now be + called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system + timezone. + +decimal +------- + +:issue:`7652` - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic. + C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah. + +The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec +library for arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point +arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. + +Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for +numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains +for standard precisions used in decimal floating point arithmetic. Since +the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example, +in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher. + +The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available +at http://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html. + + +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | | decimal.py | _decimal | speedup | + +=========+=============+==============+=============+ + | pi | 42.02s | 0.345s | 120x | + +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | telco | 172.19s | 5.68s | 30x | + +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + | psycopg | 3.57s | 0.29s | 12x | + +---------+-------------+--------------+-------------+ + +Features +~~~~~~~~ + +* The :exc:`~decimal.FloatOperation` signal optionally enables stricter + semantics for mixing floats and Decimals. + +* If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically + disables the expensive thread local context machinery. In this case, + the variable :data:`~decimal.HAVE_THREADS` is set to False. + +API changes +~~~~~~~~~~~ + +* The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine + architecture: + + +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+ + | | 32-bit | 64-bit | + +===================+=====================+==============================+ + | :const:`MAX_PREC` | :const:`425000000` | :const:`999999999999999999` | + +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+ + | :const:`MAX_EMAX` | :const:`425000000` | :const:`999999999999999999` | + +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+ + | :const:`MIN_EMIN` | :const:`-425000000` | :const:`-999999999999999999` | + +-------------------+---------------------+------------------------------+ + +* In the context templates (:class:`~decimal.DefaultContext`, + :class:`~decimal.BasicContext` and :class:`~decimal.ExtendedContext`) + the magnitude of :attr:`~decimal.Context.Emax` and + :attr:`~decimal.Context.Emin` has changed to :const:`999999`. + +* The :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor in decimal.py does not observe + the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision + exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is + used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise + :exc:`~decimal.InvalidOperation` is raised and the result is NaN. In the + latter case it is always possible to use :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal` + in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value. + + +* The power function in decimal.py is always correctly-rounded. In the + C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly-rounded + :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.exp` and :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.ln` functions, + but the final result is only "almost always correctly rounded". + + +* In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a + :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping`. For speed reasons, + :attr:`~decimal.Context.flags` and :attr:`~decimal.Context.traps` always + refer to the same :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping` that the context + was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned, + :attr:`~decimal.Context.flags` and :attr:`~decimal.Context.traps` + are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS + dictionary. + + +* Pickling a :class:`~decimal.Context` produces a different output in order + to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions. + + +* The order of arguments in the :class:`~decimal.Context` constructor has been + changed to match the order displayed by :func:`repr`. + + +* The ``watchexp`` parameter in the :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.quantize` method + is deprecated. + + +ftplib +------ + +The :class:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS` class now provides a new +:func:`~ftplib.FTP_TLS.ccc` function to revert control channel back to +plaintext. This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to +handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports. + +(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`12139`) + + +gc +-- + +It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector +before and after collection using the new :data:`~gc.callbacks` list. + + +hmac +---- + +A new :func:`~hmac.compare_digest` function has been added to prevent +side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis. + +(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in issue:`15061`) + + +imaplib +------- + +The :class:`~imaplib.IMAP4_SSL` constructor now accepts an SSLContext +parameter to control parameters of the secure channel. + +(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in :issue:`8808`) + + +inspect +------- + +A new :func:`~inspect.getclosurevars` function has been added. This function +reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and +where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal +state when testing code that relies on stateful closures. + +(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in :issue:`13062`) + +A new :func:`~inspect.getgeneratorlocals` function has been added. This +function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator's +stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing +generators. + +(Contributed by Meador Inge in :issue:`15153`) + +io +-- + +The :func:`~io.open` function has a new ``'x'`` mode that can be used to +exclusively create a new file, and raise a :exc:`FileExistsError` if the file +already exists. It is based on the C11 'x' mode to fopen(). + +(Contributed by David Townshend in :issue:`12760`) + +The constructor of the :class:`~io.TextIOWrapper` class has a new +*write_through* optional argument. If *write_through* is ``True``, calls to +:meth:`~io.TextIOWrapper.write` are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data +written on the :class:`~io.TextIOWrapper` object is immediately handled to its +underlying binary buffer. + + +math +---- + +The :mod:`math` module has a new function: + + * :func:`~math.log2`: return the base-2 logarithm of *x* + (Written by Mark Dickinson in :issue:`11888`). + + +multiprocessing +--------------- + +The new :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait` function allows to poll +multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout. +(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`12328`.) + +:class:`multiprocessing.Connection` objects can now be transferred over +multiprocessing connections. +(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`4892`.) + + +nntplib +------- + +The :class:`nntplib.NNTP` class now supports the context manager protocol to +unconditionally consume :exc:`socket.error` exceptions and to close the NNTP +connection when done:: + + >>> from nntplib import NNTP + >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n: + ... n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers') + ... + ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers') + >>> + +(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`9795`) + + +os +-- + +* The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.pipe2` function that makes it + possible to create a pipe with :data:`~os.O_CLOEXEC` or + :data:`~os.O_NONBLOCK` flags set atomically. This is especially useful to + avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs. + +* The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.sendfile` function which provides + an efficent "zero-copy" way for copying data from one file (or socket) + descriptor to another. The phrase "zero-copy" refers to the fact that all of + the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the + kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. :func:`~os.sendfile` + can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, + e.g. for downloading a file. + + (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`10882`.) + +* To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary + files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate + file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions + and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (:issue:`4761`, + :issue:`10755`). + + - The :mod:`os` module has a new :func:`~os.fwalk` function similar to + :func:`~os.walk` except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the + directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races. + + - The following functions get new optional *dir_fd* (:ref:`paths relative to + directory descriptors <dir_fd>`) and/or *follow_symlinks* (:ref:`not + following symlinks <follow_symlinks>`): + :func:`~os.access`, :func:`~os.chflags`, :func:`~os.chmod`, :func:`~os.chown`, + :func:`~os.link`, :func:`~os.lstat`, :func:`~os.mkdir`, :func:`~os.mkfifo`, + :func:`~os.mknod`, :func:`~os.open`, :func:`~os.readlink`, :func:`~os.remove`, + :func:`~os.rename`, :func:`~os.replace`, :func:`~os.rmdir`, :func:`~os.stat`, + :func:`~os.symlink`, :func:`~os.unlink`, :func:`~os.utime`. + + - The following functions now support a file descriptor for their path argument: + :func:`~os.chdir`, :func:`~os.chmod`, :func:`~os.chown`, + :func:`~os.execve`, :func:`~os.listdir`, :func:`~os.pathconf`, :func:`~os.path.exists`, + :func:`~os.stat`, :func:`~os.statvfs`, :func:`~os.utime`. + +* The :mod:`os` module has two new functions: :func:`~os.getpriority` and + :func:`~os.setpriority`. They can be used to get or set process + niceness/priority in a fashion similar to :func:`os.nice` but extended to all + processes instead of just the current one. + + (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`10784`.) + +* The new :func:`os.replace` function allows cross-platform renaming of a + file with overwriting the destination. With :func:`os.rename`, an existing + destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under + Windows. + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`8828`.) + +* The new :func:`os.get_terminal_size` function queries the size of the + terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also + :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size`. + (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in :issue:`13609`.) + +.. XXX sort out this mess after beta1 + +* New functions to support Linux extended attributes (:issue:`12720`): + :func:`~os.getxattr`, :func:`~os.listxattr`, :func:`~os.removexattr`, + :func:`~os.setxattr`. + +* New interface to the scheduler. These functions + control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. New + functions: + :func:`~os.sched_get_priority_max`, :func:`~os.sched_get_priority_min`, + :func:`~os.sched_getaffinity`, :func:`~os.sched_getparam`, + :func:`~os.sched_getscheduler`, :func:`~os.sched_rr_get_interval`, + :func:`~os.sched_setaffinity`, :func:`~os.sched_setparam`, + :func:`~os.sched_setscheduler`, :func:`~os.sched_yield`, + +* New functions to control the file system: + + * :func:`~os.posix_fadvise`: Announces an intention to access data in a + specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations. + * :func:`~os.posix_fallocate`: Ensures that enough disk space is allocated + for a file. + * :func:`~os.sync`: Force write of everything to disk. + +* Add some extra posix functions to the os module: + + * :func:`~os.lockf`: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor. + * :func:`~os.pread`: Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file + offset remains unchanged. + * :func:`~os.pwrite`: Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving + the file offset unchanged. + * :func:`~os.readv`: Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers. + * :func:`~os.truncate`: Truncate the file corresponding to *path*, so that + it is at most *length* bytes in size. + * :func:`~os.waitid`: Wait for the completion of one or more child processes. + * :func:`~os.writev`: Write the contents of *buffers* to a file descriptor, + where *buffers* is an arbitrary sequence of buffers. + * :func:`~os.getgrouplist` (:issue:`9344`): Return list of group ids that + specified user belongs to. + +* :func:`~os.times` and :func:`~os.uname`: Return type changed from a tuple to + a tuple-like object with named attributes. + + +pdb +--- + +* Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their + arguments. For example, for the ``break`` command, function and file names + are completed. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in :issue:`14210`) + + +pickle +------ + +:class:`pickle.Pickler` objects now have an optional +:attr:`~pickle.Pickler.dispatch_table` attribute allowing to set per-pickler +reduction functions. +(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in :issue:`14166`.) + + +pydoc +----- + +The Tk GUI and the :func:`~pydoc.serve` function have been removed from the +:mod:`pydoc` module: ``pydoc -g`` and :func:`~pydoc.serve` have been deprecated +in Python 3.2. + + +re +-- + +:class:`str` regular expressions now support ``\u`` and ``\U`` escapes. + +(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :issue:`3665`.) + + +sched +----- + +* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.run` now accepts a *blocking* parameter which when + set to False makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire + soonest (if any) and then return immediately. + This is useful in case you want to use the :class:`~sched.scheduler` in + non-blocking applications. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`13449`) + +* :class:`~sched.scheduler` class can now be safely used in multi-threaded + environments. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in + :issue:`8684`) + +* *timefunc* and *delayfunct* parameters of :class:`~sched.scheduler` class + constructor are now optional and defaults to :func:`time.time` and + :func:`time.sleep` respectively. (Contributed by Chris Clark in + :issue:`13245`) + +* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enter` and :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enterabs` + *argument* parameter is now optional. (Contributed by Chris Clark in + :issue:`13245`) + +* :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enter` and :meth:`~sched.scheduler.enterabs` + now accept a *kwargs* parameter. (Contributed by Chris Clark in + :issue:`13245`) + + +shutil +------ + +* The :mod:`shutil` module has these new fuctions: + + * :func:`~shutil.disk_usage`: provides total, used and free disk space + statistics. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`12442`) + * :func:`~shutil.chown`: allows one to change user and/or group of the given + path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric + ids. (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in :issue:`12191`) + +* The new :func:`shutil.get_terminal_size` function returns the size of the + terminal window the interpreter is attached to. + (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in :issue:`13609`.) + +* Several functions now take an optional ``symlinks`` argument: when that + parameter is true, symlinks aren't dereferenced and the operation instead + acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant). + (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in :issue:`12715`.) + +* :func:`~shutil.rmtree` is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms + which support the new ``dir_fd`` parameter in :func:`os.open` and + :func:`os.unlink`. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack + in :issue:`4489`.) + + + +signal +------ + +* The :mod:`signal` module has new functions: + + * :func:`~signal.pthread_sigmask`: fetch and/or change the signal mask of the + calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in :issue:`8407`) ; + * :func:`~signal.pthread_kill`: send a signal to a thread ; + * :func:`~signal.sigpending`: examine pending functions ; + * :func:`~signal.sigwait`: wait a signal. + * :func:`~signal.sigwaitinfo`: wait for a signal, returning detailed + information about it. + * :func:`~signal.sigtimedwait`: like :func:`~signal.sigwaitinfo` but with a + timeout. + +* The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte instead of + a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor. So it is possible to wait more + than one signal and know which signals were raised. + +* :func:`signal.signal` and :func:`signal.siginterrupt` raise an OSError, + instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute. + +smtplib +------- + +The :class:`~smtplib.SMTP_SSL` constructor and the :meth:`~smtplib.SMTP.starttls` +method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure +channel. + +(Contributed by Kasun Herath in :issue:`8809`) + + +socket +------ + +* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now exposes additional methods to process + ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform: + + * :func:`~socket.socket.sendmsg` + * :func:`~socket.socket.recvmsg` + * :func:`~socket.socket.recvmsg_into` + + (Contributed by David Watson in :issue:`6560`, based on an earlier patch by + Heiko Wundram) + +* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family + (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux + (http://lwn.net/Articles/253425). + + (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in :issue:`10141`) + +* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family + (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and + http://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/). + + +ssl +--- + +* The :mod:`ssl` module has two new random generation functions: + + * :func:`~ssl.RAND_bytes`: generate cryptographically strong + pseudo-random bytes. + * :func:`~ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes`: generate pseudo-random bytes. + + (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`12049`) + +* The :mod:`ssl` module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy + in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors. + + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`11183`) + +* :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain` now accepts a *password* argument + to be used if the private key is encrypted. + + (Contributed by Adam Simpkins in :issue:`12803`) + +* Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is + now supported through the :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params` and + :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve` methods. + + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13626` and :issue:`13627`) + +* SSL sockets have a new :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.get_channel_binding` method + allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as + SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. + + (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in :issue:`12551`) + +* You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks + to its new :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.compression` method. + + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`13634`) + +* Support has been added for the Next Procotol Negotiation extension using + the :meth:`ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` method. + + (Contributed by Colin Marc in :issue:`14204`) + +* SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to + :attr:`~ssl.SSLError.library` and :attr:`~ssl.SSLError.reason` attributes. + + (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in :issue:`14837`) + +stat +---- + +- The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to + :func:`stat.filemode`. It can be used to convert a file's mode to a string of + the form '-rwxrwxrwx'. + + (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in :issue:`14807`) + +sys +--- + +* The :mod:`sys` module has a new :data:`~sys.thread_info` :term:`struct + sequence` holding informations about the thread implementation. + + (:issue:`11223`) + +textwrap +-------- + +* The :mod:`textwrap` module has a new :func:`~textwrap.indent` that makes + it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block + of text. + + (:issue:`13857`) + +time +---- + +The :pep:`418` added new functions to the :mod:`time` module: + +* :func:`~time.get_clock_info`: Get information on a clock. +* :func:`~time.monotonic`: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected + by system clock updates. +* :func:`~time.perf_counter`: Performance counter with the highest available + resolution to measure a short duration. +* :func:`~time.process_time`: Sum of the system and user CPU time of the + current process. + +Other new functions: + +* :func:`~time.clock_getres`, :func:`~time.clock_gettime` and + :func:`~time.clock_settime` functions with ``CLOCK_xxx`` constants. + (Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`10278`) + + +types +----- + +Add a new :class:`types.MappingProxyType` class: Read-only proxy of a mapping. +(:issue:`14386`) + + +The new functions `types.new_class` and `types.prepare_class` provide support +for PEP 3115 compliant dynamic type creation. (:issue:`14588`) + + +urllib +------ + +The :class:`~urllib.request.Request` class, now accepts a *method* argument +used by :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.get_method` to determine what HTTP method +should be used. For example, this will send a ``'HEAD'`` request:: + + >>> urlopen(Request('http://www.python.org', method='HEAD')) + +(:issue:`1673007`) + + +webbrowser +---------- + +The :mod:`webbrowser` module supports more browsers: Google Chrome (named +:program:`chrome`, :program:`chromium`, :program:`chrome-browser` or +:program:`chromium-browser` depending on the version and operating system) as +well as the the generic launchers :program:`xdg-open` from the FreeDesktop.org +project and :program:`gvfs-open` which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3. + +(:issue:`13620` and :issue:`14493`) + + +xml.etree.ElementTree +--------------------- + +The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module now imports its C accelerator by +default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import +:mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` (this module stays for backwards compatibility, +but is now deprecated). In addition, the ``iter`` family of methods of +:class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` has been optimized (rewritten in C). +The module's documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples +and a more detailed reference. + + +Optimizations +============= + +Major performance enhancements have been added: + +* Thanks to :pep:`393`, some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized: + + * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the text + * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn't need to encode characters anymore, + the UTF-8 representation is shared with the ASCII representation + * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized + * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of a ASCII strings + is 4 times faster + +* UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster. UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster. + + (contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, :issue:`14624`, :issue:`14738` and + :issue:`15026`.) + + +Build and C API Changes +======================= + +Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include: + +* New :pep:`3118` related function: + + * :c:func:`PyMemoryView_FromMemory` + +* :pep:`393` added new Unicode types, macros and functions: + + * High-level API: + + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_FindChar` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_New` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_Substring` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_ReadChar`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_WriteChar` + + * Low-level API: + + * :c:type:`Py_UCS1`, :c:type:`Py_UCS2`, :c:type:`Py_UCS4` types + * :c:type:`PyASCIIObject` and :c:type:`PyCompactUnicodeObject` structures + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READY` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_DATA`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA`, + :c:macro:`PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_KIND` with :c:type:`PyUnicode_Kind` enum: + :c:data:`PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND`, :c:data:`PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND`, + :c:data:`PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND`, :c:data:`PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ_CHAR`, :c:macro:`PyUnicode_WRITE` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE` + + + +Deprecated +========== + +Unsupported Operating Systems +----------------------------- + +OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer. + +Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ``COMSPEC`` to ``command.com`` +are no longer supported due to maintenance burden. + + +Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods +------------------------------------------------ + +* The ``unicode_internal`` codec has been deprecated because of the + :pep:`393`, use UTF-8, UTF-16 (``utf-16-le`` or ``utf-16-be``), or UTF-32 + (``utf-32-le`` or ``utf-32-be``) +* :meth:`ftplib.FTP.nlst` and :meth:`ftplib.FTP.dir`: use + :meth:`ftplib.FTP.mlsd` +* :func:`platform.popen`: use the :mod:`subprocess` module. Check especially + the :ref:`subprocess-replacements` section. +* :issue:`13374`: The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the :mod:`os` + module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on + the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename. +* :issue:`13988`: The :mod:`xml.etree.cElementTree` module is deprecated. The + accelerator is used automatically whenever available. +* The behaviour of :func:`time.clock` depends on the platform: use the new + :func:`time.perf_counter` or :func:`time.process_time` function instead, + depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour. +* The :func:`os.stat_float_times` function is deprecated. +* :mod:`abc` module: + + * :class:`abc.abstractproperty` has been deprecated, use :class:`property` + with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + * :class:`abc.abstractclassmethod` has been deprecated, use + :class:`classmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + * :class:`abc.abstractstaticmethod` has been deprecated, use + :class:`staticmethod` with :func:`abc.abstractmethod` instead. + + + +Deprecated functions and types of the C API +------------------------------------------- + +The :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` has been deprecated by :pep:`393` and will be +removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated: + +Unicode functions and methods using :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` and +:c:type:`Py_UNICODE*` types: + + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_FromUnicode`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromWideChar` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromKindAndData` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicode`, + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_AS_DATA`: use :c:macro:`PyUnicode_DATA` with + :c:macro:`PyUnicode_READ` and :c:macro:`PyUnicode_WRITE` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_SIZE`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetSize`: use + :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH` or :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength` + * :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE`: use + ``PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * PyUnicode_KIND(str)`` (only work on ready + strings) + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsWideCharString` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetMax` + + +Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings: + + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strlen`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_GetLength` or + :c:macro:`PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcat`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcpy`, :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strncpy`, + :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_COPY`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_CopyCharacters` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_Substring` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strcmp`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Compare` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strncmp`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Tailmatch` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strchr`, :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_strrchr`: use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_FindChar` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_FILL`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_Fill` + * :c:macro:`Py_UNICODE_MATCH` + +Encoders: + + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_Encode`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8String` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape:` use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape:` use + :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsLatin1String` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeASCII`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsASCIIString` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap` + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS`: use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsMBCSString` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage` (with ``CP_ACP`` code_page) + * :c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal`, + :c:func:`PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII` + + +Deprecated features +------------------- + +The :mod:`array` module's ``'u'`` format code is now deprecated and will be +removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (:c:type:`Py_UNICODE`) API. + + +Porting to Python 3.3 +===================== + +This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes +that may require changes to your code. + +.. _portingpythoncode: + +Porting Python code +------------------- + +* Hash randomization is enabled by default. Set the :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` + environment variable to ``0`` to disable hash randomization. See also the + :meth:`object.__hash__` method. + +* :issue:`12326`: On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version + anymore. It is now always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or 'linux3' depending + on the Linux version used to build Python. Replace sys.platform == 'linux2' + with sys.platform.startswith('linux'), or directly sys.platform == 'linux' if + you don't need to support older Python versions. + +* :issue:`13847`, :issue:`14180`: :mod:`time` and :mod:`datetime`: + :exc:`OverflowError` is now raised instead of :exc:`ValueError` if a + timestamp is out of range. :exc:`OSError` is now raised if C functions + :c:func:`gmtime` or :c:func:`localtime` failed. + +* The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is contained + within a specific directory. If you create a Python source file or sourceless + bytecode file, make sure to call :func:`importlib.invalidate_caches` to clear + out the cache for the finders to notice the new file. + +* :exc:`ImportError` now uses the full name of the module that was attemped to + be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors' message will need to be + updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the + name. + +* The **index** argument to :func:`__import__` now defaults to 0 instead of -1 + and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when :pep:`328` was + implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to + perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the + relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an + index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use + :func:`importlib.import_module` rather than call :func:`__import__` directly. + +* :func:`__import__` no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0 + for top-level modules. E.g. ``__import__('sys', level=1)`` is now an error. + +* Because :attr:`sys.meta_path` and :attr:`sys.path_hooks` now have finders on + them by default, you will most likely want to use :meth:`list.insert` instead + of :meth:`list.append` to add to those lists. + +* Because ``None`` is now inserted into :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache`, if you + are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a + finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of ``None`` **and** + :class:`imp.NullImporter` to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra + overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert ``None`` into + :attr:`sys.path_importer_cache` where it repesents the use of implicit + finders, but semantically it should not change anything. + +* :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime` is now deprecated in favour of + :meth:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats` as bytecode files now store + both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was + compiled from. + +* :class:`importlib.abc.Finder` no longer specifies a `find_module()` abstract + method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to + implement that method, make sure to check for the method's existence first. + You will probably want to check for `find_loader()` first, though, in the + case of working with :term:`path entry finders <path entry finder>`. + +* :mod:`pkgutil` has been converted to use :mod:`importlib` internally. This + eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302 import + emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The + import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The + :func:`pkgutil.iter_importers` and :func:`pkgutil.walk_packages` functions + special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even + though they do not provide the non-standard ``iter_modules()`` method. + + +Porting C code +-------------- + +* In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented + :c:member:`~Py_buffer.smalltable` member of the + :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure has been removed and the + layout of the :c:type:`PyMemoryViewObject` has changed. + + All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ``memoryobject.h`` + or ``object.h`` must be rebuilt. + +* Due to :ref:`PEP 393 <pep-393>`, the :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` type and all + functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for + at least five years). If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to + construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the + memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393, you have to convert + your code to the new :doc:`Unicode API <../c-api/unicode>`. + + However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as + :c:func:`PyUnicode_Concat()`, :c:func:`PyUnicode_Join` or + :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat()`, your code will automatically take + advantage of the new unicode representations. + +* :c:func:`PyImport_GetMagicNumber` now returns -1 upon failure. + +* As a negative value for the **level** argument to :func:`__import__` is no + longer valid, the same now holds for :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleLevel`. + This also means that the value of **level** used by + :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleEx` is now 0 instead of -1. + + +Building C extensions +--------------------- + +* The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed. + Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files + named ``xxxmodule.so``, ``xxxmodule.abi3.so`` and + ``xxxmodule.cpython-*.so`` are no longer recognized as implementing + the ``xxx`` module. If you had been generating such files, you have + to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ``module`` string + from the file names). + + (implemented in :issue:`14040`.) + + +Other issues +------------ + +.. Issue #11591: When :program:`python` was started with :option:`-S`, + ``import site`` will not add site-specific paths to the module search + paths. In previous versions, it did. See changeset for doc changes in + various files. Contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo. + +.. Issue #10998: the -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been + removed. Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating. + Contributed by Éric Araujo. diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/index.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/index.rst index 8220bd2..c60818a 100644 --- a/Doc/whatsnew/index.rst +++ b/Doc/whatsnew/index.rst @@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ anyone wishing to stay up-to-date after a new release. .. toctree:: :maxdepth: 2 + 3.3.rst 3.2.rst 3.1.rst 3.0.rst |
