:mod:`itertools` --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping ======================================================================= .. module:: itertools :synopsis: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping. .. moduleauthor:: Raymond Hettinger .. sectionauthor:: Raymond Hettinger This module implements a number of :term:`iterator` building blocks inspired by constructs from the Haskell and SML programming languages. Each has been recast in a form suitable for Python. The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools that are useful by themselves or in combination. Standardization helps avoid the readability and reliability problems which arise when many different individuals create their own slightly varying implementations, each with their own quirks and naming conventions. The tools are designed to combine readily with one another. This makes it easy to construct more specialized tools succinctly and efficiently in pure Python. For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: ``tabulate(f)`` which produces a sequence ``f(0), f(1), ...``. But, this effect can be achieved in Python by combining :func:`map` and :func:`count` to form ``map(f, count())``. Likewise, the functional tools are designed to work well with the high-speed functions provided by the :mod:`operator` module. The module author welcomes suggestions for other basic building blocks to be added to future versions of the module. Whether cast in pure python form or compiled code, tools that use iterators are more memory efficient (and faster) than their list based counterparts. Adopting the principles of just-in-time manufacturing, they create data when and where needed instead of consuming memory with the computer equivalent of "inventory". The performance advantage of iterators becomes more acute as the number of elements increases -- at some point, lists grow large enough to severely impact memory cache performance and start running slowly. .. seealso:: The Standard ML Basis Library, `The Standard ML Basis Library `_. Haskell, A Purely Functional Language, `Definition of Haskell and the Standard Libraries `_. .. _itertools-functions: Itertool functions ------------------ The following module functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or loops that truncate the stream. .. function:: chain(*iterables) Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the iterables are exhausted. Used for treating consecutive sequences as a single sequence. Equivalent to:: def chain(*iterables): for it in iterables: for element in it: yield element .. function:: itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable) Alternate constructor for :func:`chain`. Gets chained inputs from a single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily. Equivalent to:: @classmethod def from_iterable(iterables): for it in iterables: for element in it: yield element .. versionadded:: 2.6 .. function:: combinations(iterable, r) Return successive *r* length combinations of elements in the *iterable*. Combinations are emitted in lexicographic sort order. So, if the input *iterable* is sorted, the combination tuples will be produced in sorted order. Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their value. So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat values in each combination. Each result tuple is ordered to match the input order. So, every combination is a subsequence of the input *iterable*. Equivalent to:: def combinations(iterable, r): 'combinations(range(4), 3) --> (0,1,2) (0,1,3) (0,2,3) (1,2,3)' pool = tuple(iterable) n = len(pool) indices = range(r) yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices) while 1: for i in reversed(range(r)): if indices[i] != i + n - r: break else: return indices[i] += 1 for j in range(i+1, r): indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1 yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices) The code for :func:`combinations` can be also expressed as a subsequence of :func:`permutations` after filtering entries where the elements are not in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool):: def combinations(iterable, r): pool = tuple(iterable) n = len(pool) for indices in permutations(range(n), r): if sorted(indices) == list(indices): yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices) .. versionadded:: 2.6 .. function:: count([n]) Make an iterator that returns consecutive integers starting with *n*. If not specified *n* defaults to zero. Often used as an argument to :func:`map` to generate consecutive data points. Also, used with :func:`izip` to add sequence numbers. Equivalent to:: def count(n=0): while True: yield n n += 1 .. function:: cycle(iterable) Make an iterator returning elements from the iterable and saving a copy of each. When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from the saved copy. Repeats indefinitely. Equivalent to:: def cycle(iterable): saved = [] for element in iterable: yield element saved.append(element) while saved: for element in saved: yield element Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on the length of the iterable). .. function:: dropwhile(predicate, iterable) Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable as long as the predicate is true; afterwards, returns every element. Note, the iterator does not produce *any* output until the predicate first becomes false, so it may have a lengthy start-up time. Equivalent to:: def dropwhile(predicate, iterable): iterable = iter(iterable) for x in iterable: if not predicate(x): yield x break for x in iterable: yield x .. function:: groupby(iterable[, key]) Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the *iterable*. The *key* is a function computing a key value for each element. If not specified or is ``None``, *key* defaults to an identity function and returns the element unchanged. Generally, the iterable needs to already be sorted on the same key function. The operation of :func:`groupby` is similar to the ``uniq`` filter in Unix. It generates a break or new group every time the value of the key function changes (which is why it is usually necessary to have sorted the data using the same key function). That behavior differs from SQL's GROUP BY which aggregates common elements regardless of their input order. The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying iterable with :func:`groupby`. Because the source is shared, when the :func:`groupby` object is advanced, the previous group is no longer visible. So, if that data is needed later, it should be stored as a list:: groups = [] uniquekeys = [] data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc) for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc): groups.append(list(g)) # Store group iterator as a list uniquekeys.append(k) :func:`groupby` is equivalent to:: class groupby(object): def __init__(self, iterable, key=None): if key is None: key = lambda x: x self.keyfunc = key self.it = iter(iterable) self.tgtkey = self.currkey = self.currvalue = object() def __iter__(self): return self def __next__(self): while self.currkey == self.tgtkey: self.currvalue = next(self.it) # Exit on StopIteration self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue) self.tgtkey = self.currkey return (self.currkey, self._grouper(self.tgtkey)) def _grouper(self, tgtkey): while self.currkey == tgtkey: yield self.currvalue self.currvalue = next(self.it) # Exit on StopIteration self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue) .. function:: filterfalse(predicate, iterable) Make an iterator that filters elements from iterable returning only those for which the predicate is ``False``. If *predicate* is ``None``, return the items that are false. Equivalent to:: def filterfalse(predicate, iterable): if predicate is None: predicate = bool for x in iterable: if not predicate(x): yield x .. function:: islice(iterable, [start,] stop [, step]) Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable. If *start* is non-zero, then elements from the iterable are skipped until start is reached. Afterward, elements are returned consecutively unless *step* is set higher than one which results in items being skipped. If *stop* is ``None``, then iteration continues until the iterator is exhausted, if at all; otherwise, it stops at the specified position. Unlike regular slicing, :func:`islice` does not support negative values for *start*, *stop*, or *step*. Can be used to extract related fields from data where the internal structure has been flattened (for example, a multi-line report may list a name field on every third line). Equivalent to:: def islice(iterable, *args): s = slice(*args) it = range(s.start or 0, s.stop or sys.maxsize, s.step or 1) nexti = next(it) for i, element in enumerate(iterable): if i == nexti: yield element nexti = next(it) If *start* is ``None``, then iteration starts at zero. If *step* is ``None``, then the step defaults to one. .. function:: izip(*iterables) Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. Like :func:`zip` except that it returns an iterator instead of a list. Used for lock-step iteration over several iterables at a time. Equivalent to:: def izip(*iterables): iterables = map(iter, iterables) while iterables: result = [next(it) for it in iterables] yield tuple(result) When no iterables are specified, return a zero length iterator. The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups using ``izip(*[iter(s)]*n)``. :func:`izip` should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don't care about trailing, unmatched values from the longer iterables. If those values are important, use :func:`zip_longest` instead. .. function:: zip_longest(*iterables[, fillvalue]) Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in with *fillvalue*. Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted. Equivalent to:: def zip_longest(*args, **kwds): fillvalue = kwds.get('fillvalue') def sentinel(counter = ([fillvalue]*(len(args)-1)).pop): yield counter() # yields the fillvalue, or raises IndexError fillers = repeat(fillvalue) iters = [chain(it, sentinel(), fillers) for it in args] try: for tup in izip(*iters): yield tup except IndexError: pass If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the :func:`zip_longest` function should be wrapped with something that limits the number of calls (for example :func:`islice` or :func:`takewhile`). .. function:: permutations(iterable[, r]) Return successive *r* length permutations of elements in the *iterable*. If *r* is not specified or is ``None``, then *r* defaults to the length of the *iterable* and all possible full-length permutations are generated. Permutations are emitted in lexicographic sort order. So, if the input *iterable* is sorted, the permutation tuples will be produced in sorted order. Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their value. So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeat values in each permutation. Equivalent to:: def permutations(iterable, r=None): 'permutations(range(3), 2) --> (0,1) (0,2) (1,0) (1,2) (2,0) (2,1)' pool = tuple(iterable) n = len(pool) r = n if r is None else r indices = range(n) cycles = range(n-r+1, n+1)[::-1] yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r]) while n: for i in reversed(range(r)): cycles[i] -= 1 if cycles[i] == 0: indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1] cycles[i] = n - i else: j = cycles[i] indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i] yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r]) break else: return The code for :func:`permutations` can be also expressed as a subsequence of :func:`product`, filtered to exclude entries with repeated elements (those from the same position in the input pool):: def permutations(iterable, r=None): pool = tuple(iterable) n = len(pool) r = n if r is None else r for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r): if len(set(indices)) == r: yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices) .. versionadded:: 2.6 .. function:: product(*iterables[, repeat]) Cartesian product of input iterables. Equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression. For example, ``product(A, B)`` returns the same as ``((x,y) for x in A for y in B)``. The leftmost iterators are in the outermost for-loop, so the output tuples cycle like an odometer (with the rightmost element changing on every iteration). This results in a lexicographic ordering so that if the inputs iterables are sorted, the product tuples are emitted in sorted order. To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the number of repetitions with the optional *repeat* keyword argument. For example, ``product(A, repeat=4)`` means the same as ``product(A, A, A, A)``. This function is equivalent to the following code, except that the actual implementation does not build up intermediate results in memory:: def product(*args, **kwds): pools = map(tuple, args) * kwds.get('repeat', 1) result = [[]] for pool in pools: result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool] for prod in result: yield tuple(prod) .. function:: repeat(object[, times]) Make an iterator that returns *object* over and over again. Runs indefinitely unless the *times* argument is specified. Used as argument to :func:`map` for invariant parameters to the called function. Also used with :func:`izip` to create an invariant part of a tuple record. Equivalent to:: def repeat(object, times=None): if times is None: while True: yield object else: for i in range(times): yield object .. function:: starmap(function, iterable) Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments obtained from the iterable. Used instead of :func:`map` when argument parameters are already grouped in tuples from a single iterable (the data has been "pre-zipped"). The difference between :func:`map` and :func:`starmap` parallels the distinction between ``function(a,b)`` and ``function(*c)``. Equivalent to:: def starmap(function, iterable): for args in iterable: yield function(*args) .. versionchanged:: 2.6 Previously, :func:`starmap` required the function arguments to be tuples. Now, any iterable is allowed. .. function:: takewhile(predicate, iterable) Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as the predicate is true. Equivalent to:: def takewhile(predicate, iterable): for x in iterable: if predicate(x): yield x else: break .. function:: tee(iterable[, n=2]) Return *n* independent iterators from a single iterable. The case where ``n==2`` is equivalent to:: def tee(iterable): def gen(next, data={}): for i in count(): if i in data: yield data.pop(i) else: data[i] = next() yield data[i] it = iter(iterable) return (gen(it.__next__), gen(it.__next__)) Note, once :func:`tee` has made a split, the original *iterable* should not be used anywhere else; otherwise, the *iterable* could get advanced without the tee objects being informed. Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on how much temporary data needs to be stored). In general, if one iterator is going to use most or all of the data before the other iterator, it is faster to use :func:`list` instead of :func:`tee`. .. _itertools-example: Examples -------- The following examples show common uses for each tool and demonstrate ways they can be combined. :: >>> amounts = [120.15, 764.05, 823.14] >>> for checknum, amount in izip(count(1200), amounts): ... print('Check %d is for $%.2f' % (checknum, amount)) ... Check 1200 is for $120.15 Check 1201 is for $764.05 Check 1202 is for $823.14 >>> import operator >>> for cube in map(operator.pow, range(1,5), repeat(3)): ... print(cube) ... 1 8 27 64 >>> reportlines = ['EuroPython', 'Roster', '', 'alex', '', 'laura', ... '', 'martin', '', 'walter', '', 'mark'] >>> for name in islice(reportlines, 3, None, 2): ... print(name.title()) ... Alex Laura Martin Walter Mark # Show a dictionary sorted and grouped by value >>> from operator import itemgetter >>> d = dict(a=1, b=2, c=1, d=2, e=1, f=2, g=3) >>> di = sorted(d.items(), key=itemgetter(1)) >>> for k, g in groupby(di, key=itemgetter(1)): ... print(k, map(itemgetter(0), g)) ... 1 ['a', 'c', 'e'] 2 ['b', 'd', 'f'] 3 ['g'] # Find runs of consecutive numbers using groupby. The key to the solution # is differencing with a range so that consecutive numbers all appear in # same group. >>> data = [ 1, 4,5,6, 10, 15,16,17,18, 22, 25,26,27,28] >>> for k, g in groupby(enumerate(data), lambda t:t[0]-t[1]): ... print(map(operator.itemgetter(1), g)) ... [1] [4, 5, 6] [10] [15, 16, 17, 18] [22] [25, 26, 27, 28] .. _itertools-recipes: Recipes ------- This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the existing itertools as building blocks. The extended tools offer the same high performance as the underlying toolset. The superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at once. Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a functional style which helps eliminate temporary variables. High speed is retained by preferring "vectorized" building blocks over the use of for-loops and :term:`generator`\s which incur interpreter overhead. :: def take(n, seq): return list(islice(seq, n)) def enumerate(iterable): return izip(count(), iterable) def tabulate(function): "Return function(0), function(1), ..." return map(function, count()) def nth(iterable, n): "Returns the nth item or raise StopIteration" return islice(iterable, n, None).next() def all(seq, pred=None): "Returns True if pred(x) is true for every element in the iterable" for elem in filterfalse(pred, seq): return False return True def any(seq, pred=None): "Returns True if pred(x) is true for at least one element in the iterable" for elem in filter(pred, seq): return True return False def no(seq, pred=None): "Returns True if pred(x) is false for every element in the iterable" for elem in filter(pred, seq): return False return True def quantify(seq, pred=None): "Count how many times the predicate is true in the sequence" return sum(map(pred, seq)) def padnone(seq): """Returns the sequence elements and then returns None indefinitely. Useful for emulating the behavior of the built-in map() function. """ return chain(seq, repeat(None)) def ncycles(seq, n): "Returns the sequence elements n times" return chain.from_iterable(repeat(seq, n)) def dotproduct(vec1, vec2): return sum(map(operator.mul, vec1, vec2)) def flatten(listOfLists): return list(chain.from_iterable(listOfLists)) def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args): """Repeat calls to func with specified arguments. Example: repeatfunc(random.random) """ if times is None: return starmap(func, repeat(args)) return starmap(func, repeat(args, times)) def pairwise(iterable): "s -> (s0,s1), (s1,s2), (s2, s3), ..." a, b = tee(iterable) next(b, None) return izip(a, b) def grouper(n, iterable, padvalue=None): "grouper(3, 'abcdefg', 'x') --> ('a','b','c'), ('d','e','f'), ('g','x','x')" return izip(*[chain(iterable, repeat(padvalue, n-1))]*n) def roundrobin(*iterables): "roundrobin('abc', 'd', 'ef') --> 'a', 'd', 'e', 'b', 'f', 'c'" # Recipe credited to George Sakkis pending = len(iterables) nexts = cycle(iter(it).next for it in iterables) while pending: try: for next in nexts: yield next() except StopIteration: pending -= 1 nexts = cycle(islice(nexts, pending)) def powerset(iterable): "powerset('ab') --> set([]), set(['a']), set(['b']), set(['a', 'b'])" # Recipe credited to Eric Raymond pairs = [(2**i, x) for i, x in enumerate(iterable)] for n in xrange(2**len(pairs)): yield set(x for m, x in pairs if m&n)