;;; python-mode.el --- Major mode for editing Python programs
;; Copyright (C) 1992,1993,1994 Tim Peters
;; Author: 1995-1998 Barry A. Warsaw
;; 1992-1994 Tim Peters
;; Maintainer: python-mode@python.org
;; Created: Feb 1992
;; Keywords: python languages oop
(defconst py-version "$Revision$"
"`python-mode' version number.")
;; This software is provided as-is, without express or implied
;; warranty. Permission to use, copy, modify, distribute or sell this
;; software, without fee, for any purpose and by any individual or
;; organization, is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright
;; notice and this paragraph appear in all copies.
;;; Commentary:
;; This is a major mode for editing Python programs. It was developed
;; by Tim Peters after an original idea by Michael A. Guravage. Tim
;; subsequently left the net; in 1995, Barry Warsaw inherited the mode
;; and is the current maintainer. Tim's now back but disavows all
;; responsibility for the mode. Smart Tim :-)
;; This version of python-mode.el is no longer compatible with Emacs
;; 18. I am striving to maintain compatibility with the X/Emacs 19
;; lineage but as time goes on that becomes more and more difficult.
;; I current recommend that you upgrade to the latest stable released
;; version of your favorite branch: Emacs 20.3 or better, or XEmacs
;; 20.4 or better (XEmacs 21.0 is in beta testing as of this writing
;; 27-Oct-1998 appears to work fine with this version of
;; python-mode.el). Even Windows users should be using at least
;; NTEmacs 20.3, and XEmacs 21.0 will work very nicely on Windows when
;; it is released.
;; FOR MORE INFORMATION:
;; For more information on installing python-mode.el, especially with
;; respect to compatibility information, please see
;;
;; http://www.python.org/emacs/python-mode/
;;
;; This site also contains links to other packages that you might find
;; useful, such as pdb interfaces, OO-Browser links, etc.
;; BUG REPORTING:
;; To submit bug reports, use C-c C-b. Please include a complete, but
;; concise code sample and a recipe for reproducing the bug. Send
;; suggestions and other comments to python-mode@python.org.
;; When in a Python mode buffer, do a C-h m for more help. It's
;; doubtful that a texinfo manual would be very useful, but if you
;; want to contribute one, I'll certainly accept it!
;; TO DO LIST:
;; - Better integration with pdb.py and gud-mode for debugging.
;; - Rewrite according to GNU Emacs Lisp standards.
;; - have py-execute-region on indented code act as if the region is
;; left justified. Avoids syntax errors.
;; - add a py-goto-block-down, bound to C-c C-d
;;; Code:
(require 'comint)
(require 'custom)
(eval-when-compile
(require 'cl)
(if (not (and (condition-case nil
(require 'custom)
(error nil))
;; Stock Emacs 19.34 has a broken/old Custom library
;; that does more harm than good. Fortunately, it is
;; missing defcustom
(fboundp 'defcustom)))
(error "STOP! STOP! STOP! STOP!
The Custom library was not found or is out of date. A more current
version is required. Please download and install the latest version
of the Custom library from:
See the Python Mode home page for details:
")))
;; user definable variables
;; vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
(defgroup python nil
"Support for the Python programming language, "
:group 'languages
:prefix "py-")
(defcustom py-python-command "python"
"*Shell command used to start Python interpreter."
:type 'string
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-jpython-command "jpython"
"*Shell command used to start the JPython interpreter."
:type 'string
:group 'python
:tag "JPython Command")
(defcustom py-default-interpreter 'cpython
"*Which Python interpreter is used by default.
The value for this variable can be either `cpython' or `jpython'.
When the value is `cpython', the variables `py-python-command' and
`py-python-command-args' are consulted to determine the interpreter
and arguments to use.
When the value is `jpython', the variables `py-jpython-command' and
`py-jpython-command-args' are consulted to determine the interpreter
and arguments to use.
Note that this variable is consulted only the first time that a Python
mode buffer is visited during an Emacs session. After that, use
\\[py-toggle-shells] to change the interpreter shell."
:type '(choice (const :tag "Python (a.k.a. CPython)" cpython)
(const :tag "JPython" jpython))
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-python-command-args '("-i")
"*List of string arguments to be used when starting a Python shell."
:type '(repeat string)
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-jpython-command-args '("-i")
"*List of string arguments to be used when starting a JPython shell."
:type '(repeat string)
:group 'python
:tag "JPython Command Args")
(defcustom py-indent-offset 4
"*Amount of offset per level of indentation.
`\\[py-guess-indent-offset]' can usually guess a good value when
you're editing someone else's Python code."
:type 'integer
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-smart-indentation t
"*Should `python-mode' try to automagically set some indentation variables?
When this variable is non-nil, two things happen when a buffer is set
to `python-mode':
1. `py-indent-offset' is guessed from existing code in the buffer.
Only guessed values between 2 and 8 are considered. If a valid
guess can't be made (perhaps because you are visiting a new
file), then the value in `py-indent-offset' is used.
2. `indent-tabs-mode' is turned off if `py-indent-offset' does not
equal `tab-width' (`indent-tabs-mode' is never turned on by
Python mode). This means that for newly written code, tabs are
only inserted in indentation if one tab is one indentation
level, otherwise only spaces are used.
Note that both these settings occur *after* `python-mode-hook' is run,
so if you want to defeat the automagic configuration, you must also
set `py-smart-indentation' to nil in your `python-mode-hook'."
:type 'boolean
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-align-multiline-strings-p t
"*Flag describing how multi-line triple quoted strings are aligned.
When this flag is non-nil, continuation lines are lined up under the
preceding line's indentation. When this flag is nil, continuation
lines are aligned to column zero."
:type '(choice (const :tag "Align under preceding line" t)
(const :tag "Align to column zero" nil))
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-block-comment-prefix "##"
"*String used by \\[comment-region] to comment out a block of code.
This should follow the convention for non-indenting comment lines so
that the indentation commands won't get confused (i.e., the string
should be of the form `#x...' where `x' is not a blank or a tab, and
`...' is arbitrary). However, this string should not end in whitespace."
:type 'string
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-honor-comment-indentation t
"*Controls how comment lines influence subsequent indentation.
When nil, all comment lines are skipped for indentation purposes, and
if possible, a faster algorithm is used (i.e. X/Emacs 19 and beyond).
When t, lines that begin with a single `#' are a hint to subsequent
line indentation. If the previous line is such a comment line (as
opposed to one that starts with `py-block-comment-prefix'), then its
indentation is used as a hint for this line's indentation. Lines that
begin with `py-block-comment-prefix' are ignored for indentation
purposes.
When not nil or t, comment lines that begin with a `#' are used as
indentation hints, unless the comment character is in column zero."
:type '(choice
(const :tag "Skip all comment lines (fast)" nil)
(const :tag "Single # `sets' indentation for next line" t)
(const :tag "Single # `sets' indentation except at column zero"
other)
)
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-temp-directory
(let ((ok '(lambda (x)
(and x
(setq x (expand-file-name x)) ; always true
(file-directory-p x)
(file-writable-p x)
x))))
(or (funcall ok (getenv "TMPDIR"))
(funcall ok "/usr/tmp")
(funcall ok "/tmp")
(funcall ok ".")
(error
"Couldn't find a usable temp directory -- set `py-temp-directory'")))
"*Directory used for temp files created by a *Python* process.
By default, the first directory from this list that exists and that you
can write into: the value (if any) of the environment variable TMPDIR,
/usr/tmp, /tmp, or the current directory."
:type 'string
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-beep-if-tab-change t
"*Ring the bell if `tab-width' is changed.
If a comment of the form
\t# vi:set tabsize=:
is found before the first code line when the file is entered, and the
current value of (the general Emacs variable) `tab-width' does not
equal , `tab-width' is set to , a message saying so is
displayed in the echo area, and if `py-beep-if-tab-change' is non-nil
the Emacs bell is also rung as a warning."
:type 'boolean
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-jump-on-exception t
"*Jump to innermost exception frame in *Python Output* buffer.
When this variable is non-nil and an exception occurs when running
Python code synchronously in a subprocess, jump immediately to the
source code of the innermost traceback frame."
:type 'boolean
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-ask-about-save t
"If not nil, ask about which buffers to save before executing some code.
Otherwise, all modified buffers are saved without asking."
:type 'boolean
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-backspace-function 'backward-delete-char-untabify
"*Function called by `py-electric-backspace' when deleting backwards."
:type 'function
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-delete-function 'delete-char
"*Function called by `py-electric-delete' when deleting forwards."
:type 'function
:group 'python)
(defcustom py-imenu-show-method-args-p nil
"*Controls echoing of arguments of functions & methods in the Imenu buffer.
When non-nil, arguments are printed."
:type 'boolean
:group 'python)
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-indent-offset)
;; Not customizable
(defvar py-master-file nil
"If non-nil, execute the named file instead of the buffer's file.
The intent is to allow you to set this variable in the file's local
variable section, e.g.:
# Local Variables:
# py-master-file: \"master.py\"
# End:
so that typing \\[py-execute-buffer] in that buffer executes the named
master file instead of the buffer's file. If the file name has a
relative path, the value of variable `default-directory' for the
buffer is prepended to come up with a file name.")
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-master-file)
;; ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
;; NO USER DEFINABLE VARIABLES BEYOND THIS POINT
(defconst py-emacs-features
(let (features)
;; NTEmacs 19.34.6 has a broken make-temp-name; it always returns
;; the same string.
(let ((tmp1 (make-temp-name ""))
(tmp2 (make-temp-name "")))
(if (string-equal tmp1 tmp2)
(push 'broken-temp-names features)))
;; return the features
features)
"A list of features extant in the Emacs you are using.
There are many flavors of Emacs out there, with different levels of
support for features needed by `python-mode'.")
(defvar python-font-lock-keywords
(let ((kw1 (mapconcat 'identity
'("and" "assert" "break" "class"
"continue" "def" "del" "elif"
"else" "except" "exec" "for"
"from" "global" "if" "import"
"in" "is" "lambda" "not"
"or" "pass" "print" "raise"
"return" "while"
)
"\\|"))
(kw2 (mapconcat 'identity
'("else:" "except:" "finally:" "try:")
"\\|"))
)
(list
;; keywords
(cons (concat "\\b\\(" kw1 "\\)\\b[ \n\t(]") 1)
;; block introducing keywords with immediately following colons.
;; Yes "except" is in both lists.
(cons (concat "\\b\\(" kw2 "\\)[ \n\t(]") 1)
;; classes
'("\\bclass[ \t]+\\([a-zA-Z_]+[a-zA-Z0-9_]*\\)"
1 font-lock-type-face)
;; functions
'("\\bdef[ \t]+\\([a-zA-Z_]+[a-zA-Z0-9_]*\\)"
1 font-lock-function-name-face)
))
"Additional expressions to highlight in Python mode.")
(put 'python-mode 'font-lock-defaults '(python-font-lock-keywords))
;; have to bind py-file-queue before installing the kill-emacs-hook
(defvar py-file-queue nil
"Queue of Python temp files awaiting execution.
Currently-active file is at the head of the list.")
;; Constants
(defconst py-stringlit-re
(concat
;; These fail if backslash-quote ends the string (not worth
;; fixing?). They precede the short versions so that the first two
;; quotes don't look like an empty short string.
;;
;; (maybe raw), long single quoted triple quoted strings (SQTQ),
;; with potential embedded single quotes
"[rR]?'''[^']*\\(\\('[^']\\|''[^']\\)[^']*\\)*'''"
"\\|"
;; (maybe raw), long double quoted triple quoted strings (DQTQ),
;; with potential embedded double quotes
"[rR]?\"\"\"[^\"]*\\(\\(\"[^\"]\\|\"\"[^\"]\\)[^\"]*\\)*\"\"\""
"\\|"
"[rR]?'\\([^'\n\\]\\|\\\\.\\)*'" ; single-quoted
"\\|" ; or
"[rR]?\"\\([^\"\n\\]\\|\\\\.\\)*\"" ; double-quoted
)
"Regular expression matching a Python string literal.")
(defconst py-continued-re
;; This is tricky because a trailing backslash does not mean
;; continuation if it's in a comment
(concat
"\\(" "[^#'\"\n\\]" "\\|" py-stringlit-re "\\)*"
"\\\\$")
"Regular expression matching Python backslash continuation lines.")
(defconst py-blank-or-comment-re "[ \t]*\\($\\|#\\)"
"Regular expression matching a blank or comment line.")
(defconst py-outdent-re
(concat "\\(" (mapconcat 'identity
'("else:"
"except\\(\\s +.*\\)?:"
"finally:"
"elif\\s +.*:")
"\\|")
"\\)")
"Regular expression matching statements to be dedented one level.")
(defconst py-block-closing-keywords-re
"\\(return\\|raise\\|break\\|continue\\|pass\\)"
"Regular expression matching keywords which typically close a block.")
(defconst py-no-outdent-re
(concat
"\\("
(mapconcat 'identity
(list "try:"
"except\\(\\s +.*\\)?:"
"while\\s +.*:"
"for\\s +.*:"
"if\\s +.*:"
"elif\\s +.*:"
(concat py-block-closing-keywords-re "[ \t\n]")
)
"\\|")
"\\)")
"Regular expression matching lines not to dedent after.")
(defconst py-defun-start-re
"^\\([ \t]*\\)def[ \t]+\\([a-zA-Z_0-9]+\\)\\|\\(^[a-zA-Z_0-9]+\\)[ \t]*="
;; If you change this, you probably have to change py-current-defun
;; as well. This is only used by py-current-defun to find the name
;; for add-log.el.
"Regular expression matching a function, method, or variable assignment.")
(defconst py-class-start-re "^class[ \t]*\\([a-zA-Z_0-9]+\\)"
;; If you change this, you probably have to change py-current-defun
;; as well. This is only used by py-current-defun to find the name
;; for add-log.el.
"Regular expression for finding a class name.")
(defconst py-traceback-line-re
"[ \t]+File \"\\([^\"]+\\)\", line \\([0-9]+\\)"
"Regular expression that describes tracebacks.")
;; Major mode boilerplate
;; define a mode-specific abbrev table for those who use such things
(defvar python-mode-abbrev-table nil
"Abbrev table in use in `python-mode' buffers.")
(define-abbrev-table 'python-mode-abbrev-table nil)
(defvar python-mode-hook nil
"*Hook called by `python-mode'.")
;; In previous version of python-mode.el, the hook was incorrectly
;; called py-mode-hook, and was not defvar'd. Deprecate its use.
(and (fboundp 'make-obsolete-variable)
(make-obsolete-variable 'py-mode-hook 'python-mode-hook))
(defvar py-mode-map ()
"Keymap used in `python-mode' buffers.")
(if py-mode-map
nil
(setq py-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap))
;; electric keys
(define-key py-mode-map ":" 'py-electric-colon)
;; indentation level modifiers
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-l" 'py-shift-region-left)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-r" 'py-shift-region-right)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c<" 'py-shift-region-left)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c>" 'py-shift-region-right)
;; subprocess commands
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-c" 'py-execute-buffer)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-m" 'py-execute-import-or-reload)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-s" 'py-execute-string)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c|" 'py-execute-region)
(define-key py-mode-map "\e\C-x" 'py-execute-def-or-class)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c!" 'py-shell)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-t" 'py-toggle-shells)
;; Caution! Enter here at your own risk. We are trying to support
;; several behaviors and it gets disgusting. :-( This logic ripped
;; largely from CC Mode.
;;
;; In XEmacs 19, Emacs 19, and Emacs 20, we use this to bind
;; backwards deletion behavior to DEL, which both Delete and
;; Backspace get translated to. There's no way to separate this
;; behavior in a clean way, so deal with it! Besides, it's been
;; this way since the dawn of time.
(if (not (boundp 'delete-key-deletes-forward))
(define-key py-mode-map "\177" 'py-electric-backspace)
;; However, XEmacs 20 actually achieved enlightenment. It is
;; possible to sanely define both backward and forward deletion
;; behavior under X separately (TTYs are forever beyond hope, but
;; who cares? XEmacs 20 does the right thing with these too).
(define-key py-mode-map [delete] 'py-electric-delete)
(define-key py-mode-map [backspace] 'py-electric-backspace))
;; Separate M-BS from C-M-h. The former should remain
;; backward-kill-word.
(define-key py-mode-map [(control meta h)] 'py-mark-def-or-class)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-k" 'py-mark-block)
;; Miscellaneous
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c:" 'py-guess-indent-offset)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\t" 'py-indent-region)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-n" 'py-next-statement)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-p" 'py-previous-statement)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-u" 'py-goto-block-up)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c#" 'py-comment-region)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c?" 'py-describe-mode)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-hm" 'py-describe-mode)
(define-key py-mode-map "\e\C-a" 'py-beginning-of-def-or-class)
(define-key py-mode-map "\e\C-e" 'py-end-of-def-or-class)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c-" 'py-up-exception)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c=" 'py-down-exception)
;; stuff that is `standard' but doesn't interface well with
;; python-mode, which forces us to rebind to special commands
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-xnd" 'py-narrow-to-defun)
;; information
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-b" 'py-submit-bug-report)
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-c\C-v" 'py-version)
;; shadow global bindings for newline-and-indent w/ the py- version.
;; BAW - this is extremely bad form, but I'm not going to change it
;; for now.
(mapcar #'(lambda (key)
(define-key py-mode-map key 'py-newline-and-indent))
(where-is-internal 'newline-and-indent))
;; Force RET to be py-newline-and-indent even if it didn't get
;; mapped by the above code. motivation: Emacs' default binding for
;; RET is `newline' and C-j is `newline-and-indent'. Most Pythoneers
;; expect RET to do a `py-newline-and-indent' and any Emacsers who
;; dislike this are probably knowledgeable enough to do a rebind.
;; However, we do *not* change C-j since many Emacsers have already
;; swapped RET and C-j and they don't want C-j bound to `newline' to
;; change.
(define-key py-mode-map "\C-m" 'py-newline-and-indent)
)
(defvar py-mode-output-map nil
"Keymap used in *Python Output* buffers.")
(if py-mode-output-map
nil
(setq py-mode-output-map (make-sparse-keymap))
(define-key py-mode-output-map [button2] 'py-mouseto-exception)
(define-key py-mode-output-map "\C-c\C-c" 'py-goto-exception)
;; TBD: Disable all self-inserting keys. This is bogus, we should
;; really implement this as *Python Output* buffer being read-only
(mapcar #' (lambda (key)
(define-key py-mode-output-map key
#'(lambda () (interactive) (beep))))
(where-is-internal 'self-insert-command))
)
(defvar py-shell-map nil
"Keymap used in *Python* shell buffers.")
(if py-shell-map
nil
(setq py-shell-map (copy-keymap comint-mode-map))
(define-key py-shell-map [tab] 'tab-to-tab-stop)
(define-key py-shell-map "\C-c-" 'py-up-exception)
(define-key py-shell-map "\C-c=" 'py-down-exception)
)
(defvar py-mode-syntax-table nil
"Syntax table used in `python-mode' buffers.")
(if py-mode-syntax-table
nil
(setq py-mode-syntax-table (make-syntax-table))
(modify-syntax-entry ?\( "()" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\) ")(" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\[ "(]" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\] ")[" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\{ "(}" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\} "){" py-mode-syntax-table)
;; Add operator symbols misassigned in the std table
(modify-syntax-entry ?\$ "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\% "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\& "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\* "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\+ "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\- "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\/ "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\< "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\= "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\> "." py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\| "." py-mode-syntax-table)
;; For historical reasons, underscore is word class instead of
;; symbol class. GNU conventions say it should be symbol class, but
;; there's a natural conflict between what major mode authors want
;; and what users expect from `forward-word' and `backward-word'.
;; Guido and I have hashed this out and have decided to keep
;; underscore in word class. If you're tempted to change it, try
;; binding M-f and M-b to py-forward-into-nomenclature and
;; py-backward-into-nomenclature instead. This doesn't help in all
;; situations where you'd want the different behavior
;; (e.g. backward-kill-word).
(modify-syntax-entry ?\_ "w" py-mode-syntax-table)
;; Both single quote and double quote are string delimiters
(modify-syntax-entry ?\' "\"" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\" "\"" py-mode-syntax-table)
;; backquote is open and close paren
(modify-syntax-entry ?\` "$" py-mode-syntax-table)
;; comment delimiters
(modify-syntax-entry ?\# "<" py-mode-syntax-table)
(modify-syntax-entry ?\n ">" py-mode-syntax-table)
)
;; Utilities
(defmacro py-safe (&rest body)
"Safely execute BODY, return nil if an error occurred."
(` (condition-case nil
(progn (,@ body))
(error nil))))
(defsubst py-keep-region-active ()
"Keep the region active in XEmacs."
;; Ignore byte-compiler warnings you might see. Also note that
;; FSF's Emacs 19 does it differently; its policy doesn't require us
;; to take explicit action.
(and (boundp 'zmacs-region-stays)
(setq zmacs-region-stays t)))
(defsubst py-point (position)
"Returns the value of point at certain commonly referenced POSITIONs.
POSITION can be one of the following symbols:
bol -- beginning of line
eol -- end of line
bod -- beginning of def or class
eod -- end of def or class
bob -- beginning of buffer
eob -- end of buffer
boi -- back to indentation
bos -- beginning of statement
This function does not modify point or mark."
(let ((here (point)))
(cond
((eq position 'bol) (beginning-of-line))
((eq position 'eol) (end-of-line))
((eq position 'bod) (py-beginning-of-def-or-class))
((eq position 'eod) (py-end-of-def-or-class))
;; Kind of funny, I know, but useful for py-up-exception.
((eq position 'bob) (beginning-of-buffer))
((eq position 'eob) (end-of-buffer))
((eq position 'boi) (back-to-indentation))
((eq position 'bos) (py-goto-initial-line))
(t (error "Unknown buffer position requested: %s" position))
)
(prog1
(point)
(goto-char here))))
(defsubst py-highlight-line (from to file line)
(cond
((fboundp 'make-extent)
;; XEmacs
(let ((e (make-extent from to)))
(set-extent-property e 'mouse-face 'highlight)
(set-extent-property e 'py-exc-info (cons file line))
(set-extent-property e 'keymap py-mode-output-map)))
(t
;; Emacs -- Please port this!
)
))
(defun py-in-literal (&optional lim)
"Return non-nil if point is in a Python literal (a comment or string).
Optional argument LIM indicates the beginning of the containing form,
i.e. the limit on how far back to scan."
;; This is the version used for non-XEmacs, which has a nicer
;; interface.
;;
;; WARNING: Watch out for infinite recursion.
(let* ((lim (or lim (py-point 'bod)))
(state (parse-partial-sexp lim (point))))
(cond
((nth 3 state) 'string)
((nth 4 state) 'comment)
(t nil))))
;; XEmacs has a built-in function that should make this much quicker.
;; In this case, lim is ignored
(defun py-fast-in-literal (&optional lim)
"Fast version of `py-in-literal', used only by XEmacs.
Optional LIM is ignored."
;; don't have to worry about context == 'block-comment
(buffer-syntactic-context))
(if (fboundp 'buffer-syntactic-context)
(defalias 'py-in-literal 'py-fast-in-literal))
;; Menu definitions, only relevent if you have the easymenu.el package
;; (standard in the latest Emacs 19 and XEmacs 19 distributions).
(defvar py-menu nil
"Menu for Python Mode.
This menu will get created automatically if you have the `easymenu'
package. Note that the latest X/Emacs releases contain this package.")
(and (py-safe (require 'easymenu) t)
(easy-menu-define
py-menu py-mode-map "Python Mode menu"
'("Python"
["Comment Out Region" py-comment-region (mark)]
["Uncomment Region" (py-comment-region (point) (mark) '(4)) (mark)]
"-"
["Mark current block" py-mark-block t]
["Mark current def" py-mark-def-or-class t]
["Mark current class" (py-mark-def-or-class t) t]
"-"
["Shift region left" py-shift-region-left (mark)]
["Shift region right" py-shift-region-right (mark)]
"-"
["Import/reload file" py-execute-import-or-reload t]
["Execute buffer" py-execute-buffer t]
["Execute region" py-execute-region (mark)]
["Execute def or class" py-execute-def-or-class (mark)]
["Execute string" py-execute-string t]
["Start interpreter..." py-shell t]
"-"
["Go to start of block" py-goto-block-up t]
["Go to start of class" (py-beginning-of-def-or-class t) t]
["Move to end of class" (py-end-of-def-or-class t) t]
["Move to start of def" py-beginning-of-def-or-class t]
["Move to end of def" py-end-of-def-or-class t]
"-"
["Describe mode" py-describe-mode t]
)))
;; Imenu definitions
(defvar py-imenu-class-regexp
(concat ; <>
"\\(" ;
"^[ \t]*" ; newline and maybe whitespace
"\\(class[ \t]+[a-zA-Z0-9_]+\\)" ; class name
; possibly multiple superclasses
"\\([ \t]*\\((\\([a-zA-Z0-9_,. \t\n]\\)*)\\)?\\)"
"[ \t]*:" ; and the final :
"\\)" ; >>classes<<
)
"Regexp for Python classes for use with the Imenu package."
)
(defvar py-imenu-method-regexp
(concat ; <>
"\\(" ;
"^[ \t]*" ; new line and maybe whitespace
"\\(def[ \t]+" ; function definitions start with def
"\\([a-zA-Z0-9_]+\\)" ; name is here
; function arguments...
;; "[ \t]*(\\([-+/a-zA-Z0-9_=,\* \t\n.()\"'#]*\\))"
"[ \t]*(\\([^:#]*\\))"
"\\)" ; end of def
"[ \t]*:" ; and then the :
"\\)" ; >>methods and functions<<
)
"Regexp for Python methods/functions for use with the Imenu package."
)
(defvar py-imenu-method-no-arg-parens '(2 8)
"Indices into groups of the Python regexp for use with Imenu.
Using these values will result in smaller Imenu lists, as arguments to
functions are not listed.
See the variable `py-imenu-show-method-args-p' for more
information.")
(defvar py-imenu-method-arg-parens '(2 7)
"Indices into groups of the Python regexp for use with imenu.
Using these values will result in large Imenu lists, as arguments to
functions are listed.
See the variable `py-imenu-show-method-args-p' for more
information.")
;; Note that in this format, this variable can still be used with the
;; imenu--generic-function. Otherwise, there is no real reason to have
;; it.
(defvar py-imenu-generic-expression
(cons
(concat
py-imenu-class-regexp
"\\|" ; or...
py-imenu-method-regexp
)
py-imenu-method-no-arg-parens)
"Generic Python expression which may be used directly with Imenu.
Used by setting the variable `imenu-generic-expression' to this value.
Also, see the function \\[py-imenu-create-index] for a better
alternative for finding the index.")
;; These next two variables are used when searching for the Python
;; class/definitions. Just saving some time in accessing the
;; generic-python-expression, really.
(defvar py-imenu-generic-regexp nil)
(defvar py-imenu-generic-parens nil)
(defun py-imenu-create-index-function ()
"Python interface function for the Imenu package.
Finds all Python classes and functions/methods. Calls function
\\[py-imenu-create-index-engine]. See that function for the details
of how this works."
(setq py-imenu-generic-regexp (car py-imenu-generic-expression)
py-imenu-generic-parens (if py-imenu-show-method-args-p
py-imenu-method-arg-parens
py-imenu-method-no-arg-parens))
(goto-char (point-min))
;; Warning: When the buffer has no classes or functions, this will
;; return nil, which seems proper according to the Imenu API, but
;; causes an error in the XEmacs port of Imenu. Sigh.
(py-imenu-create-index-engine nil))
(defun py-imenu-create-index-engine (&optional start-indent)
"Function for finding Imenu definitions in Python.
Finds all definitions (classes, methods, or functions) in a Python
file for the Imenu package.
Returns a possibly nested alist of the form
(INDEX-NAME . INDEX-POSITION)
The second element of the alist may be an alist, producing a nested
list as in
(INDEX-NAME . INDEX-ALIST)
This function should not be called directly, as it calls itself
recursively and requires some setup. Rather this is the engine for
the function \\[py-imenu-create-index-function].
It works recursively by looking for all definitions at the current
indention level. When it finds one, it adds it to the alist. If it
finds a definition at a greater indentation level, it removes the
previous definition from the alist. In its place it adds all
definitions found at the next indentation level. When it finds a
definition that is less indented then the current level, it returns
the alist it has created thus far.
The optional argument START-INDENT indicates the starting indentation
at which to continue looking for Python classes, methods, or
functions. If this is not supplied, the function uses the indentation
of the first definition found."
(let (index-alist
sub-method-alist
looking-p
def-name prev-name
cur-indent def-pos
(class-paren (first py-imenu-generic-parens))
(def-paren (second py-imenu-generic-parens)))
(setq looking-p
(re-search-forward py-imenu-generic-regexp (point-max) t))
(while looking-p
(save-excursion
;; used to set def-name to this value but generic-extract-name
;; is new to imenu-1.14. this way it still works with
;; imenu-1.11
;;(imenu--generic-extract-name py-imenu-generic-parens))
(let ((cur-paren (if (match-beginning class-paren)
class-paren def-paren)))
(setq def-name
(buffer-substring-no-properties (match-beginning cur-paren)
(match-end cur-paren))))
(save-match-data
(py-beginning-of-def-or-class 'either))
(beginning-of-line)
(setq cur-indent (current-indentation)))
;; HACK: want to go to the next correct definition location. We
;; explicitly list them here but it would be better to have them
;; in a list.
(setq def-pos
(or (match-beginning class-paren)
(match-beginning def-paren)))
;; if we don't have a starting indent level, take this one
(or start-indent
(setq start-indent cur-indent))
;; if we don't have class name yet, take this one
(or prev-name
(setq prev-name def-name))
;; what level is the next definition on? must be same, deeper
;; or shallower indentation
(cond
;; at the same indent level, add it to the list...
((= start-indent cur-indent)
(push (cons def-name def-pos) index-alist))
;; deeper indented expression, recurse
((< start-indent cur-indent)
;; the point is currently on the expression we're supposed to
;; start on, so go back to the last expression. The recursive
;; call will find this place again and add it to the correct
;; list
(re-search-backward py-imenu-generic-regexp (point-min) 'move)
(setq sub-method-alist (py-imenu-create-index-engine cur-indent))
(if sub-method-alist
;; we put the last element on the index-alist on the start
;; of the submethod alist so the user can still get to it.
(let ((save-elmt (pop index-alist)))
(push (cons prev-name
(cons save-elmt sub-method-alist))
index-alist))))
;; found less indented expression, we're done.
(t
(setq looking-p nil)
(re-search-backward py-imenu-generic-regexp (point-min) t)))
;; end-cond
(setq prev-name def-name)
(and looking-p
(setq looking-p
(re-search-forward py-imenu-generic-regexp
(point-max) 'move))))
(nreverse index-alist)))
;;;###autoload
(defun python-mode ()
"Major mode for editing Python files.
To submit a problem report, enter `\\[py-submit-bug-report]' from a
`python-mode' buffer. Do `\\[py-describe-mode]' for detailed
documentation. To see what version of `python-mode' you are running,
enter `\\[py-version]'.
This mode knows about Python indentation, tokens, comments and
continuation lines. Paragraphs are separated by blank lines only.
COMMANDS
\\{py-mode-map}
VARIABLES
py-indent-offset\t\tindentation increment
py-block-comment-prefix\t\tcomment string used by `comment-region'
py-python-command\t\tshell command to invoke Python interpreter
py-temp-directory\t\tdirectory used for temp files (if needed)
py-beep-if-tab-change\t\tring the bell if `tab-width' is changed"
(interactive)
;; set up local variables
(kill-all-local-variables)
(make-local-variable 'font-lock-defaults)
(make-local-variable 'paragraph-separate)
(make-local-variable 'paragraph-start)
(make-local-variable 'require-final-newline)
(make-local-variable 'comment-start)
(make-local-variable 'comment-end)
(make-local-variable 'comment-start-skip)
(make-local-variable 'comment-column)
(make-local-variable 'comment-indent-function)
(make-local-variable 'indent-region-function)
(make-local-variable 'indent-line-function)
(make-local-variable 'add-log-current-defun-function)
;;
(set-syntax-table py-mode-syntax-table)
(setq major-mode 'python-mode
mode-name "Python"
local-abbrev-table python-mode-abbrev-table
font-lock-defaults '(python-font-lock-keywords)
paragraph-separate "^[ \t]*$"
paragraph-start "^[ \t]*$"
require-final-newline t
comment-start "# "
comment-end ""
comment-start-skip "# *"
comment-column 40
comment-indent-function 'py-comment-indent-function
indent-region-function 'py-indent-region
indent-line-function 'py-indent-line
;; tell add-log.el how to find the current function/method/variable
add-log-current-defun-function 'py-current-defun
)
(use-local-map py-mode-map)
;; add the menu
(if py-menu
(easy-menu-add py-menu))
;; Emacs 19 requires this
(if (boundp 'comment-multi-line)
(setq comment-multi-line nil))
;; Install Imenu if available
(when (py-safe (require 'imenu))
(setq imenu-create-index-function #'py-imenu-create-index-function)
(setq imenu-generic-expression py-imenu-generic-expression)
(if (fboundp 'imenu-add-to-menubar)
(imenu-add-to-menubar (format "%s-%s" "IM" mode-name)))
)
;; Run the mode hook. Note that py-mode-hook is deprecated.
(if python-mode-hook
(run-hooks 'python-mode-hook)
(run-hooks 'py-mode-hook))
;; Now do the automagical guessing
(if py-smart-indentation
(let ((offset py-indent-offset))
;; It's okay if this fails to guess a good value
(if (and (py-safe (py-guess-indent-offset))
(<= py-indent-offset 8)
(>= py-indent-offset 2))
(setq offset py-indent-offset))
(setq py-indent-offset offset)
;; Only turn indent-tabs-mode off if tab-width !=
;; py-indent-offset. Never turn it on, because the user must
;; have explicitly turned it off.
(if (/= tab-width py-indent-offset)
(setq indent-tabs-mode nil))
))
;; Set the default shell if not already set
(when (null py-which-shell)
(py-toggle-shells py-default-interpreter))
)
;; electric characters
(defun py-outdent-p ()
"Returns non-nil if the current line should dedent one level."
(save-excursion
(and (progn (back-to-indentation)
(looking-at py-outdent-re))
;; short circuit infloop on illegal construct
(not (bobp))
(progn (forward-line -1)
(py-goto-initial-line)
(back-to-indentation)
(while (or (looking-at py-blank-or-comment-re)
(bobp))
(backward-to-indentation 1))
(not (looking-at py-no-outdent-re)))
)))
(defun py-electric-colon (arg)
"Insert a colon.
In certain cases the line is dedented appropriately. If a numeric
argument ARG is provided, that many colons are inserted
non-electrically. Electric behavior is inhibited inside a string or
comment."
(interactive "P")
(self-insert-command (prefix-numeric-value arg))
;; are we in a string or comment?
(if (save-excursion
(let ((pps (parse-partial-sexp (save-excursion
(py-beginning-of-def-or-class)
(point))
(point))))
(not (or (nth 3 pps) (nth 4 pps)))))
(save-excursion
(let ((here (point))
(outdent 0)
(indent (py-compute-indentation t)))
(if (and (not arg)
(py-outdent-p)
(= indent (save-excursion
(py-next-statement -1)
(py-compute-indentation t)))
)
(setq outdent py-indent-offset))
;; Don't indent, only dedent. This assumes that any lines
;; that are already dedented relative to
;; py-compute-indentation were put there on purpose. It's
;; highly annoying to have `:' indent for you. Use TAB, C-c
;; C-l or C-c C-r to adjust. TBD: Is there a better way to
;; determine this???
(if (< (current-indentation) indent) nil
(goto-char here)
(beginning-of-line)
(delete-horizontal-space)
(indent-to (- indent outdent))
)))))
;; Python subprocess utilities and filters
(defun py-execute-file (proc filename)
"Send to Python interpreter process PROC \"execfile('FILENAME')\".
Make that process's buffer visible and force display. Also make
comint believe the user typed this string so that
`kill-output-from-shell' does The Right Thing."
(let ((curbuf (current-buffer))
(procbuf (process-buffer proc))
; (comint-scroll-to-bottom-on-output t)
(msg (format "## working on region in file %s...\n" filename))
(cmd (format "execfile(r'%s')\n" filename)))
(unwind-protect
(save-excursion
(set-buffer procbuf)
(goto-char (point-max))
(move-marker (process-mark proc) (point))
(funcall (process-filter proc) proc msg))
(set-buffer curbuf))
(process-send-string proc cmd)))
(defun py-comint-output-filter-function (string)
"Watch output for Python prompt and exec next file waiting in queue.
This function is appropriate for `comint-output-filter-functions'."
;; TBD: this should probably use split-string
(when (and (or (string-equal string ">>> ")
(and (>= (length string) 5)
(string-equal (substring string -5) "\n>>> ")))
py-file-queue)
(py-safe (delete-file (car py-file-queue)))
(setq py-file-queue (cdr py-file-queue))
(if py-file-queue
(let ((pyproc (get-buffer-process (current-buffer))))
(py-execute-file pyproc (car py-file-queue))))
))
(defun py-postprocess-output-buffer (buf)
"Highlight exceptions found in BUF.
If an exception occurred return t, otherwise return nil. BUF must exist."
(let (line file bol err-p)
(save-excursion
(set-buffer buf)
(beginning-of-buffer)
(while (re-search-forward py-traceback-line-re nil t)
(setq file (match-string 1)
line (string-to-int (match-string 2))
bol (py-point 'bol))
(py-highlight-line bol (py-point 'eol) file line)))
(when (and py-jump-on-exception line)
(beep)
(py-jump-to-exception file line)
(setq err-p t))
err-p))
;;; Subprocess commands
;; only used when (memq 'broken-temp-names py-emacs-features)
(defvar py-serial-number 0)
(defvar py-exception-buffer nil)
(defconst py-output-buffer "*Python Output*")
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-output-buffer)
;; for toggling between CPython and JPython
(defvar py-which-shell nil)
(defvar py-which-args py-python-command-args)
(defvar py-which-bufname "Python")
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-which-shell)
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-which-args)
(make-variable-buffer-local 'py-which-bufname)
(defun py-toggle-shells (arg)
"Toggles between the CPython and JPython shells.
With positive argument ARG (interactively \\[universal-argument]),
uses the CPython shell, with negative ARG uses the JPython shell, and
with a zero argument, toggles the shell.
Programmatically, ARG can also be one of the symbols `cpython' or
`jpython', equivalent to positive arg and negative arg respectively."
(interactive "P")
;; default is to toggle
(if (null arg)
(setq arg 0))
;; preprocess arg
(cond
((equal arg 0)
;; toggle
(if (string-equal py-which-bufname "Python")
(setq arg -1)
(setq arg 1)))
((equal arg 'cpython) (setq arg 1))
((equal arg 'jpython) (setq arg -1)))
(let (msg)
(cond
((< 0 arg)
;; set to CPython
(setq py-which-shell py-python-command
py-which-args py-python-command-args
py-which-bufname "Python"
msg "CPython"
mode-name "Python"))
((> 0 arg)
(setq py-which-shell py-jpython-command
py-which-args py-jpython-command-args
py-which-bufname "JPython"
msg "JPython"
mode-name "JPython"))
)
(message "Using the %s shell" msg)
(setq py-output-buffer (format "*%s Output*" py-which-bufname))))
;;;###autoload
(defun py-shell (&optional argprompt)
"Start an interactive Python interpreter in another window.
This is like Shell mode, except that Python is running in the window
instead of a shell. See the `Interactive Shell' and `Shell Mode'
sections of the Emacs manual for details, especially for the key
bindings active in the `*Python*' buffer.
With optional \\[universal-argument], the user is prompted for the
flags to pass to the Python interpreter. This has no effect when this
command is used to switch to an existing process, only when a new
process is started. If you use this, you will probably want to ensure
that the current arguments are retained (they will be included in the
prompt). This argument is ignored when this function is called
programmatically, or when running in Emacs 19.34 or older.
Note: You can toggle between using the CPython interpreter and the
JPython interpreter by hitting \\[py-toggle-shells]. This toggles
buffer local variables which control whether all your subshell
interactions happen to the `*JPython*' or `*Python*' buffers (the
latter is the name used for the CPython buffer).
Warning: Don't use an interactive Python if you change sys.ps1 or
sys.ps2 from their default values, or if you're running code that
prints `>>> ' or `... ' at the start of a line. `python-mode' can't
distinguish your output from Python's output, and assumes that `>>> '
at the start of a line is a prompt from Python. Similarly, the Emacs
Shell mode code assumes that both `>>> ' and `... ' at the start of a
line are Python prompts. Bad things can happen if you fool either
mode.
Warning: If you do any editing *in* the process buffer *while* the
buffer is accepting output from Python, do NOT attempt to `undo' the
changes. Some of the output (nowhere near the parts you changed!) may
be lost if you do. This appears to be an Emacs bug, an unfortunate
interaction between undo and process filters; the same problem exists in
non-Python process buffers using the default (Emacs-supplied) process
filter."
(interactive "P")
;; Set the default shell if not already set
(when (null py-which-shell)
(py-toggle-shells py-default-interpreter))
(let ((args py-which-args))
(when (and argprompt
(interactive-p)
(fboundp 'split-string))
;; TBD: Perhaps force "-i" in the final list?
(setq args (split-string
(read-string (concat py-which-bufname
" arguments: ")
(concat
(mapconcat 'identity py-which-args " ") " ")
))))
(switch-to-buffer-other-window
(apply 'make-comint py-which-bufname py-which-shell nil args))
(make-local-variable 'comint-prompt-regexp)
(setq comint-prompt-regexp "^>>> \\|^[.][.][.] \\|^(pdb) ")
(add-hook 'comint-output-filter-functions
'py-comint-output-filter-function)
(set-syntax-table py-mode-syntax-table)
(use-local-map py-shell-map)
))
(defun py-clear-queue ()
"Clear the queue of temporary files waiting to execute."
(interactive)
(let ((n (length py-file-queue)))
(mapcar 'delete-file py-file-queue)
(setq py-file-queue nil)
(message "%d pending files de-queued." n)))
(defun py-execute-region (start end &optional async)
"Execute the region in a Python interpreter.
The region is first copied into a temporary file (in the directory
`py-temp-directory'). If there is no Python interpreter shell
running, this file is executed synchronously using
`shell-command-on-region'. If the program is long running, use
\\[universal-argument] to run the command asynchronously in its own
buffer.
When this function is used programmatically, arguments START and END
specify the region to execute, and optional third argument ASYNC, if
non-nil, specifies to run the command asynchronously in its own
buffer.
If the Python interpreter shell is running, the region is execfile()'d
in that shell. If you try to execute regions too quickly,
`python-mode' will queue them up and execute them one at a time when
it sees a `>>> ' prompt from Python. Each time this happens, the
process buffer is popped into a window (if it's not already in some
window) so you can see it, and a comment of the form
\t## working on region in file ...
is inserted at the end. See also the command `py-clear-queue'."
(interactive "r\nP")
(or (< start end)
(error "Region is empty"))
(let* ((proc (get-process py-which-bufname))
(temp (if (memq 'broken-temp-names py-emacs-features)
(let
((sn py-serial-number)
(pid (and (fboundp 'emacs-pid) (emacs-pid))))
(setq py-serial-number (1+ py-serial-number))
(if pid
(format "python-%d-%d" sn pid)
(format "python-%d" sn)))
(make-temp-name "python-")))
(file (expand-file-name temp py-temp-directory))
(cur (current-buffer))
(buf (get-buffer-create file)))
;; Write the contents of the buffer, watching out for indented regions.
(save-excursion
(goto-char start)
(let ((needs-if (/= (py-point 'bol) (py-point 'boi))))
(set-buffer buf)
(when needs-if
(insert "if 1:\n"))
(insert-buffer-substring cur start end)))
(cond
;; always run the code in its own asynchronous subprocess
(async
;; User explicitly wants this to run in its own async subprocess
(save-excursion
(set-buffer buf)
(write-region (point-min) (point-max) file nil 'nomsg))
(let* ((buf (generate-new-buffer-name py-output-buffer))
;; TBD: a horrible hack, but why create new Custom variables?
(arg (if (string-equal py-which-bufname "Python")
"-u" "")))
(start-process py-which-bufname buf py-which-shell arg file)
(pop-to-buffer buf)
(py-postprocess-output-buffer buf)
;; TBD: clean up the temporary file!
))
;; if the Python interpreter shell is running, queue it up for
;; execution there.
(proc
;; use the existing python shell
(save-excursion
(set-buffer buf)
(write-region (point-min) (point-max) file nil 'nomsg))
(if (not py-file-queue)
(py-execute-file proc file)
(message "File %s queued for execution" file))
(setq py-file-queue (append py-file-queue (list file)))
(setq py-exception-buffer (cons file (current-buffer))))
(t
;; TBD: a horrible hack, buy why create new Custom variables?
(let ((cmd (concat py-which-shell
(if (string-equal py-which-bufname "JPython")
" -" ""))))
;; otherwise either run it synchronously in a subprocess
(save-excursion
(set-buffer buf)
(shell-command-on-region (point-min) (point-max)
cmd py-output-buffer))
;; shell-command-on-region kills the output buffer if it never
;; existed and there's no output from the command
(if (not (get-buffer py-output-buffer))
(message "No output.")
(setq py-exception-buffer (current-buffer))
(let ((err-p (py-postprocess-output-buffer py-output-buffer)))
(pop-to-buffer py-output-buffer)
(if err-p
(pop-to-buffer py-exception-buffer)))
))
;; TBD: delete the buffer
)
)))
;; Code execution commands
(defun py-execute-buffer (&optional async)
"Send the contents of the buffer to a Python interpreter.
If the file local variable `py-master-file' is non-nil, execute the
named file instead of the buffer's file.
If there is a *Python* process buffer it is used. If a clipping
restriction is in effect, only the accessible portion of the buffer is
sent. A trailing newline will be supplied if needed.
See the `\\[py-execute-region]' docs for an account of some
subtleties, including the use of the optional ASYNC argument."
(interactive "P")
(if py-master-file
(let* ((filename (expand-file-name py-master-file))
(buffer (or (get-file-buffer filename)
(find-file-noselect filename))))
(set-buffer buffer)))
(py-execute-region (point-min) (point-max) async))
(defun py-execute-import-or-reload (&optional async)
"Import the current buffer's file in a Python interpreter.
If the file has already been imported, then do reload instead to get
the latest version.
If the file's name does not end in \".py\", then do execfile instead.
If the current buffer is not visiting a file, do `py-execute-buffer'
instead.
If the file local variable `py-master-file' is non-nil, import or
reload the named file instead of the buffer's file. The file may be
saved based on the value of `py-execute-import-or-reload-save-p'.
See the `\\[py-execute-region]' docs for an account of some
subtleties, including the use of the optional ASYNC argument.
This may be preferable to `\\[py-execute-buffer]' because:
- Definitions stay in their module rather than appearing at top
level, where they would clutter the global namespace and not affect
uses of qualified names (MODULE.NAME).
- The Python debugger gets line number information about the functions."
(interactive "P")
;; Check file local variable py-master-file
(if py-master-file
(let* ((filename (expand-file-name py-master-file))
(buffer (or (get-file-buffer filename)
(find-file-noselect filename))))
(set-buffer buffer)))
(let ((file (buffer-file-name (current-buffer))))
(if file
(progn
;; Maybe save some buffers
(save-some-buffers (not py-ask-about-save) nil)
(py-execute-string
(if (string-match "\\.py$" file)
(let ((f (file-name-sans-extension
(file-name-nondirectory file))))
(format "if globals().has_key('%s'):\n reload(%s)\nelse:\n import %s\n"
f f f))
(format "execfile(r'%s')\n" file))
async))
;; else
(py-execute-buffer async))))
(defun py-execute-def-or-class (&optional async)
"Send the current function or class definition to a Python interpreter.
If there is a *Python* process buffer it is used.
See the `\\[py-execute-region]' docs for an account of some
subtleties, including the use of the optional ASYNC argument."
(interactive "P")
(save-excursion
(py-mark-def-or-class)
;; mark is before point
(py-execute-region (mark) (point) async)))
(defun py-execute-string (string &optional async)
"Send the argument STRING to a Python interpreter.
If there is a *Python* process buffer it is used.
See the `\\[py-execute-region]' docs for an account of some
subtleties, including the use of the optional ASYNC argument."
(interactive "sExecute Python command: ")
(save-excursion
(set-buffer (get-buffer-create
(generate-new-buffer-name " *Python Command*")))
(insert string)
(py-execute-region (point-min) (point-max) async)))
(defun py-jump-to-exception (file line)
"Jump to the Python code in FILE at LINE."
(let ((buffer (cond ((string-equal file "")
(if (consp py-exception-buffer)
(cdr py-exception-buffer)
py-exception-buffer))
((and (consp py-exception-buffer)
(string-equal file (car py-exception-buffer)))
(cdr py-exception-buffer))
((py-safe (find-file-noselect file)))
;; could not figure out what file the exception
;; is pointing to, so prompt for it
(t (find-file (read-file-name "Exception file: "
nil
file t))))))
(pop-to-buffer buffer)
;; Force Python mode
(if (not (eq major-mode 'python-mode))
(python-mode))
(goto-line line)
(message "Jumping to exception in file %s on line %d" file line)))
(defun py-mouseto-exception (event)
"Jump to the code which caused the Python exception at EVENT.
EVENT is usually a mouse click."
(interactive "e")
(cond
((fboundp 'event-point)
;; XEmacs
(let* ((point (event-point event))
(buffer (event-buffer event))
(e (and point buffer (extent-at point buffer 'py-exc-info)))
(info (and e (extent-property e 'py-exc-info))))
(message "Event point: %d, info: %s" point info)
(and info
(py-jump-to-exception (car info) (cdr info)))
))
;; Emacs -- Please port this!
))
(defun py-goto-exception ()
"Go to the line indicated by the traceback."
(interactive)
(let (file line)
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(if (looking-at py-traceback-line-re)
(setq file (match-string 1)
line (string-to-int (match-string 2)))))
(if (not file)
(error "Not on a traceback line"))
(py-jump-to-exception file line)))
(defun py-find-next-exception (start buffer searchdir errwhere)
"Find the next Python exception and jump to the code that caused it.
START is the buffer position in BUFFER from which to begin searching
for an exception. SEARCHDIR is a function, either
`re-search-backward' or `re-search-forward' indicating the direction
to search. ERRWHERE is used in an error message if the limit (top or
bottom) of the trackback stack is encountered."
(let (file line)
(save-excursion
(set-buffer buffer)
(goto-char (py-point start))
(if (funcall searchdir py-traceback-line-re nil t)
(setq file (match-string 1)
line (string-to-int (match-string 2)))))
(if (and file line)
(py-jump-to-exception file line)
(error "%s of traceback" errwhere))))
(defun py-down-exception (&optional bottom)
"Go to the next line down in the traceback.
With \\[univeral-argument] (programmatically, optional argument
BOTTOM), jump to the bottom (innermost) exception in the exception
stack."
(interactive "P")
(let* ((proc (get-process "Python"))
(buffer (if proc "*Python*" py-output-buffer)))
(if bottom
(py-find-next-exception 'eob buffer 're-search-backward "Bottom")
(py-find-next-exception 'eol buffer 're-search-forward "Bottom"))))
(defun py-up-exception (&optional top)
"Go to the previous line up in the traceback.
With \\[universal-argument] (programmatically, optional argument TOP)
jump to the top (outermost) exception in the exception stack."
(interactive "P")
(let* ((proc (get-process "Python"))
(buffer (if proc "*Python*" py-output-buffer)))
(if top
(py-find-next-exception 'bob buffer 're-search-forward "Top")
(py-find-next-exception 'bol buffer 're-search-backward "Top"))))
;; Electric deletion
(defun py-electric-backspace (arg)
"Delete preceding character or levels of indentation.
Deletion is performed by calling the function in `py-backspace-function'
with a single argument (the number of characters to delete).
If point is at the leftmost column, delete the preceding newline.
Otherwise, if point is at the leftmost non-whitespace character of a
line that is neither a continuation line nor a non-indenting comment
line, or if point is at the end of a blank line, this command reduces
the indentation to match that of the line that opened the current
block of code. The line that opened the block is displayed in the
echo area to help you keep track of where you are. With
\\[universal-argument] dedents that many blocks (but not past column
zero).
Otherwise the preceding character is deleted, converting a tab to
spaces if needed so that only a single column position is deleted.
\\[universal-argument] specifies how many characters to delete;
default is 1.
When used programmatically, argument ARG specifies the number of
blocks to dedent, or the number of characters to delete, as indicated
above."
(interactive "*p")
(if (or (/= (current-indentation) (current-column))
(bolp)
(py-continuation-line-p)
; (not py-honor-comment-indentation)
; (looking-at "#[^ \t\n]") ; non-indenting #
)
(funcall py-backspace-function arg)
;; else indent the same as the colon line that opened the block
;; force non-blank so py-goto-block-up doesn't ignore it
(insert-char ?* 1)
(backward-char)
(let ((base-indent 0) ; indentation of base line
(base-text "") ; and text of base line
(base-found-p nil))
(save-excursion
(while (< 0 arg)
(condition-case nil ; in case no enclosing block
(progn
(py-goto-block-up 'no-mark)
(setq base-indent (current-indentation)
base-text (py-suck-up-leading-text)
base-found-p t))
(error nil))
(setq arg (1- arg))))
(delete-char 1) ; toss the dummy character
(delete-horizontal-space)
(indent-to base-indent)
(if base-found-p
(message "Closes block: %s" base-text)))))
(defun py-electric-delete (arg)
"Delete preceding or following character or levels of whitespace.
The behavior of this function depends on the variable
`delete-key-deletes-forward'. If this variable is nil (or does not
exist, as in older Emacsen and non-XEmacs versions), then this
function behaves identically to \\[c-electric-backspace].
If `delete-key-deletes-forward' is non-nil and is supported in your
Emacs, then deletion occurs in the forward direction, by calling the
function in `py-delete-function'.
\\[universal-argument] (programmatically, argument ARG) specifies the
number of characters to delete (default is 1)."
(interactive "*p")
(if (or (and (fboundp 'delete-forward-p) ;XEmacs 21
(delete-forward-p))
(and (boundp 'delete-key-deletes-forward) ;XEmacs 20
delete-key-deletes-forward))
(funcall py-delete-function arg)
(py-electric-backspace arg)))
;; required for pending-del and delsel modes
(put 'py-electric-backspace 'delete-selection 'supersede) ;delsel
(put 'py-electric-backspace 'pending-delete 'supersede) ;pending-del
(put 'py-electric-delete 'delete-selection 'supersede) ;delsel
(put 'py-electric-delete 'pending-delete 'supersede) ;pending-del
(defun py-indent-line (&optional arg)
"Fix the indentation of the current line according to Python rules.
With \\[universal-argument] (programmatically, the optional argument
ARG non-nil), ignore dedenting rules for block closing statements
(e.g. return, raise, break, continue, pass)
This function is normally bound to `indent-line-function' so
\\[indent-for-tab-command] will call it."
(interactive "P")
(let* ((ci (current-indentation))
(move-to-indentation-p (<= (current-column) ci))
(need (py-compute-indentation (not arg))))
;; see if we need to dedent
(if (py-outdent-p)
(setq need (- need py-indent-offset)))
(if (/= ci need)
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(delete-horizontal-space)
(indent-to need)))
(if move-to-indentation-p (back-to-indentation))))
(defun py-newline-and-indent ()
"Strives to act like the Emacs `newline-and-indent'.
This is just `strives to' because correct indentation can't be computed
from scratch for Python code. In general, deletes the whitespace before
point, inserts a newline, and takes an educated guess as to how you want
the new line indented."
(interactive)
(let ((ci (current-indentation)))
(if (< ci (current-column)) ; if point beyond indentation
(newline-and-indent)
;; else try to act like newline-and-indent "normally" acts
(beginning-of-line)
(insert-char ?\n 1)
(move-to-column ci))))
(defun py-compute-indentation (honor-block-close-p)
"Compute Python indentation.
When HONOR-BLOCK-CLOSE-P is non-nil, statements such as `return',
`raise', `break', `continue', and `pass' force one level of
dedenting."
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(let* ((bod (py-point 'bod))
(pps (parse-partial-sexp bod (point)))
(boipps (parse-partial-sexp bod (py-point 'boi)))
placeholder)
(cond
;; are we inside a multi-line string or comment?
((or (and (nth 3 pps) (nth 3 boipps))
(and (nth 4 pps) (nth 4 boipps)))
(save-excursion
(if (not py-align-multiline-strings-p) 0
;; skip back over blank & non-indenting comment lines
;; note: will skip a blank or non-indenting comment line
;; that happens to be a continuation line too
(re-search-backward "^[ \t]*\\([^ \t\n#]\\|#[ \t\n]\\)" nil 'move)
(back-to-indentation)
(current-column))))
;; are we on a continuation line?
((py-continuation-line-p)
(let ((startpos (point))
(open-bracket-pos (py-nesting-level))
endpos searching found state)
(if open-bracket-pos
(progn
;; align with first item in list; else a normal
;; indent beyond the line with the open bracket
(goto-char (1+ open-bracket-pos)) ; just beyond bracket
;; is the first list item on the same line?
(skip-chars-forward " \t")
(if (null (memq (following-char) '(?\n ?# ?\\)))
; yes, so line up with it
(current-column)
;; first list item on another line, or doesn't exist yet
(forward-line 1)
(while (and (< (point) startpos)
(looking-at "[ \t]*[#\n\\\\]")) ; skip noise
(forward-line 1))
(if (and (< (point) startpos)
(/= startpos
(save-excursion
(goto-char (1+ open-bracket-pos))
(forward-comment (point-max))
(point))))
;; again mimic the first list item
(current-indentation)
;; else they're about to enter the first item
(goto-char open-bracket-pos)
(setq placeholder (point))
(py-goto-initial-line)
(py-goto-beginning-of-tqs
(save-excursion (nth 3 (parse-partial-sexp
placeholder (point)))))
(+ (current-indentation) py-indent-offset))))
;; else on backslash continuation line
(forward-line -1)
(if (py-continuation-line-p) ; on at least 3rd line in block
(current-indentation) ; so just continue the pattern
;; else started on 2nd line in block, so indent more.
;; if base line is an assignment with a start on a RHS,
;; indent to 2 beyond the leftmost "="; else skip first
;; chunk of non-whitespace characters on base line, + 1 more
;; column
(end-of-line)
(setq endpos (point) searching t)
(back-to-indentation)
(setq startpos (point))
;; look at all "=" from left to right, stopping at first
;; one not nested in a list or string
(while searching
(skip-chars-forward "^=" endpos)
(if (= (point) endpos)
(setq searching nil)
(forward-char 1)
(setq state (parse-partial-sexp startpos (point)))
(if (and (zerop (car state)) ; not in a bracket
(null (nth 3 state))) ; & not in a string
(progn
(setq searching nil) ; done searching in any case
(setq found
(not (or
(eq (following-char) ?=)
(memq (char-after (- (point) 2))
'(?< ?> ?!)))))))))
(if (or (not found) ; not an assignment
(looking-at "[ \t]*\\\\")) ; <=>
(progn
(goto-char startpos)
(skip-chars-forward "^ \t\n")))
(1+ (current-column))))))
;; not on a continuation line
((bobp) (current-indentation))
;; Dfn: "Indenting comment line". A line containing only a
;; comment, but which is treated like a statement for
;; indentation calculation purposes. Such lines are only
;; treated specially by the mode; they are not treated
;; specially by the Python interpreter.
;; The rules for indenting comment lines are a line where:
;; - the first non-whitespace character is `#', and
;; - the character following the `#' is whitespace, and
;; - the line is dedented with respect to (i.e. to the left
;; of) the indentation of the preceding non-blank line.
;; The first non-blank line following an indenting comment
;; line is given the same amount of indentation as the
;; indenting comment line.
;; All other comment-only lines are ignored for indentation
;; purposes.
;; Are we looking at a comment-only line which is *not* an
;; indenting comment line? If so, we assume that it's been
;; placed at the desired indentation, so leave it alone.
;; Indenting comment lines are aligned as statements down
;; below.
((and (looking-at "[ \t]*#[^ \t\n]")
;; NOTE: this test will not be performed in older Emacsen
(fboundp 'forward-comment)
(<= (current-indentation)
(save-excursion
(forward-comment (- (point-max)))
(current-indentation))))
(current-indentation))
;; else indentation based on that of the statement that
;; precedes us; use the first line of that statement to
;; establish the base, in case the user forced a non-std
;; indentation for the continuation lines (if any)
(t
;; skip back over blank & non-indenting comment lines note:
;; will skip a blank or non-indenting comment line that
;; happens to be a continuation line too. use fast Emacs 19
;; function if it's there.
(if (and (eq py-honor-comment-indentation nil)
(fboundp 'forward-comment))
(forward-comment (- (point-max)))
(let ((prefix-re (concat py-block-comment-prefix "[ \t]*"))
done)
(while (not done)
(re-search-backward "^[ \t]*\\([^ \t\n#]\\|#\\)" nil 'move)
(setq done (or (bobp)
(and (eq py-honor-comment-indentation t)
(save-excursion
(back-to-indentation)
(not (looking-at prefix-re))
))
(and (not (eq py-honor-comment-indentation t))
(save-excursion
(back-to-indentation)
(not (zerop (current-column)))))
))
)))
;; if we landed inside a string, go to the beginning of that
;; string. this handles triple quoted, multi-line spanning
;; strings.
(py-goto-beginning-of-tqs (nth 3 (parse-partial-sexp bod (point))))
;; now skip backward over continued lines
(setq placeholder (point))
(py-goto-initial-line)
;; we may *now* have landed in a TQS, so find the beginning of
;; this string.
(py-goto-beginning-of-tqs
(save-excursion (nth 3 (parse-partial-sexp
placeholder (point)))))
(+ (current-indentation)
(if (py-statement-opens-block-p)
py-indent-offset
(if (and honor-block-close-p (py-statement-closes-block-p))
(- py-indent-offset)
0)))
)))))
(defun py-guess-indent-offset (&optional global)
"Guess a good value for, and change, `py-indent-offset'.
By default, make a buffer-local copy of `py-indent-offset' with the
new value, so that other Python buffers are not affected. With
\\[universal-argument] (programmatically, optional argument GLOBAL),
change the global value of `py-indent-offset'. This affects all
Python buffers (that don't have their own buffer-local copy), both
those currently existing and those created later in the Emacs session.
Some people use a different value for `py-indent-offset' than you use.
There's no excuse for such foolishness, but sometimes you have to deal
with their ugly code anyway. This function examines the file and sets
`py-indent-offset' to what it thinks it was when they created the
mess.
Specifically, it searches forward from the statement containing point,
looking for a line that opens a block of code. `py-indent-offset' is
set to the difference in indentation between that line and the Python
statement following it. If the search doesn't succeed going forward,
it's tried again going backward."
(interactive "P") ; raw prefix arg
(let (new-value
(start (point))
(restart (point))
(found nil)
colon-indent)
(py-goto-initial-line)
(while (not (or found (eobp)))
(when (and (re-search-forward ":[ \t]*\\($\\|[#\\]\\)" nil 'move)
(not (py-in-literal restart)))
(setq restart (point))
(py-goto-initial-line)
(if (py-statement-opens-block-p)
(setq found t)
(goto-char restart))))
(unless found
(goto-char start)
(py-goto-initial-line)
(while (not (or found (bobp)))
(setq found (and
(re-search-backward ":[ \t]*\\($\\|[#\\]\\)" nil 'move)
(or (py-goto-initial-line) t) ; always true -- side effect
(py-statement-opens-block-p)))))
(setq colon-indent (current-indentation)
found (and found (zerop (py-next-statement 1)))
new-value (- (current-indentation) colon-indent))
(goto-char start)
(if (not found)
(error "Sorry, couldn't guess a value for py-indent-offset")
(funcall (if global 'kill-local-variable 'make-local-variable)
'py-indent-offset)
(setq py-indent-offset new-value)
(or noninteractive
(message "%s value of py-indent-offset set to %d"
(if global "Global" "Local")
py-indent-offset)))
))
(defun py-comment-indent-function ()
"Python version of `comment-indent-function'."
;; This is required when filladapt is turned off. Without it, when
;; filladapt is not used, comments which start in column zero
;; cascade one character to the right
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(let ((eol (py-point 'eol)))
(and comment-start-skip
(re-search-forward comment-start-skip eol t)
(setq eol (match-beginning 0)))
(goto-char eol)
(skip-chars-backward " \t")
(max comment-column (+ (current-column) (if (bolp) 0 1)))
)))
(defun py-narrow-to-defun (&optional class)
"Make text outside current defun invisible.
The defun visible is the one that contains point or follows point.
Optional CLASS is passed directly to `py-beginning-of-def-or-class'."
(interactive "P")
(save-excursion
(widen)
(py-end-of-def-or-class class)
(let ((end (point)))
(py-beginning-of-def-or-class class)
(narrow-to-region (point) end))))
(defun py-shift-region (start end count)
"Indent lines from START to END by COUNT spaces."
(save-excursion
(goto-char end)
(beginning-of-line)
(setq end (point))
(goto-char start)
(beginning-of-line)
(setq start (point))
(indent-rigidly start end count)))
(defun py-shift-region-left (start end &optional count)
"Shift region of Python code to the left.
The lines from the line containing the start of the current region up
to (but not including) the line containing the end of the region are
shifted to the left, by `py-indent-offset' columns.
If a prefix argument is given, the region is instead shifted by that
many columns. With no active region, dedent only the current line.
You cannot dedent the region if any line is already at column zero."
(interactive
(let ((p (point))
(m (mark))
(arg current-prefix-arg))
(if m
(list (min p m) (max p m) arg)
(list p (save-excursion (forward-line 1) (point)) arg))))
;; if any line is at column zero, don't shift the region
(save-excursion
(goto-char start)
(while (< (point) end)
(back-to-indentation)
(if (and (zerop (current-column))
(not (looking-at "\\s *$")))
(error "Region is at left edge"))
(forward-line 1)))
(py-shift-region start end (- (prefix-numeric-value
(or count py-indent-offset))))
(py-keep-region-active))
(defun py-shift-region-right (start end &optional count)
"Shift region of Python code to the right.
The lines from the line containing the start of the current region up
to (but not including) the line containing the end of the region are
shifted to the right, by `py-indent-offset' columns.
If a prefix argument is given, the region is instead shifted by that
many columns. With no active region, indent only the current line."
(interactive
(let ((p (point))
(m (mark))
(arg current-prefix-arg))
(if m
(list (min p m) (max p m) arg)
(list p (save-excursion (forward-line 1) (point)) arg))))
(py-shift-region start end (prefix-numeric-value
(or count py-indent-offset)))
(py-keep-region-active))
(defun py-indent-region (start end &optional indent-offset)
"Reindent a region of Python code.
The lines from the line containing the start of the current region up
to (but not including) the line containing the end of the region are
reindented. If the first line of the region has a non-whitespace
character in the first column, the first line is left alone and the
rest of the region is reindented with respect to it. Else the entire
region is reindented with respect to the (closest code or indenting
comment) statement immediately preceding the region.
This is useful when code blocks are moved or yanked, when enclosing
control structures are introduced or removed, or to reformat code
using a new value for the indentation offset.
If a numeric prefix argument is given, it will be used as the value of
the indentation offset. Else the value of `py-indent-offset' will be
used.
Warning: The region must be consistently indented before this function
is called! This function does not compute proper indentation from
scratch (that's impossible in Python), it merely adjusts the existing
indentation to be correct in context.
Warning: This function really has no idea what to do with
non-indenting comment lines, and shifts them as if they were indenting
comment lines. Fixing this appears to require telepathy.
Special cases: whitespace is deleted from blank lines; continuation
lines are shifted by the same amount their initial line was shifted,
in order to preserve their relative indentation with respect to their
initial line; and comment lines beginning in column 1 are ignored."
(interactive "*r\nP") ; region; raw prefix arg
(save-excursion
(goto-char end) (beginning-of-line) (setq end (point-marker))
(goto-char start) (beginning-of-line)
(let ((py-indent-offset (prefix-numeric-value
(or indent-offset py-indent-offset)))
(indents '(-1)) ; stack of active indent levels
(target-column 0) ; column to which to indent
(base-shifted-by 0) ; amount last base line was shifted
(indent-base (if (looking-at "[ \t\n]")
(py-compute-indentation t)
0))
ci)
(while (< (point) end)
(setq ci (current-indentation))
;; figure out appropriate target column
(cond
((or (eq (following-char) ?#) ; comment in column 1
(looking-at "[ \t]*$")) ; entirely blank
(setq target-column 0))
((py-continuation-line-p) ; shift relative to base line
(setq target-column (+ ci base-shifted-by)))
(t ; new base line
(if (> ci (car indents)) ; going deeper; push it
(setq indents (cons ci indents))
;; else we should have seen this indent before
(setq indents (memq ci indents)) ; pop deeper indents
(if (null indents)
(error "Bad indentation in region, at line %d"
(save-restriction
(widen)
(1+ (count-lines 1 (point)))))))
(setq target-column (+ indent-base
(* py-indent-offset
(- (length indents) 2))))
(setq base-shifted-by (- target-column ci))))
;; shift as needed
(if (/= ci target-column)
(progn
(delete-horizontal-space)
(indent-to target-column)))
(forward-line 1))))
(set-marker end nil))
(defun py-comment-region (beg end &optional arg)
"Like `comment-region' but uses double hash (`#') comment starter."
(interactive "r\nP")
(let ((comment-start py-block-comment-prefix))
(comment-region beg end arg)))
;; Functions for moving point
(defun py-previous-statement (count)
"Go to the start of the COUNTth preceding Python statement.
By default, goes to the previous statement. If there is no such
statement, goes to the first statement. Return count of statements
left to move. `Statements' do not include blank, comment, or
continuation lines."
(interactive "p") ; numeric prefix arg
(if (< count 0) (py-next-statement (- count))
(py-goto-initial-line)
(let (start)
(while (and
(setq start (point)) ; always true -- side effect
(> count 0)
(zerop (forward-line -1))
(py-goto-statement-at-or-above))
(setq count (1- count)))
(if (> count 0) (goto-char start)))
count))
(defun py-next-statement (count)
"Go to the start of next Python statement.
If the statement at point is the i'th Python statement, goes to the
start of statement i+COUNT. If there is no such statement, goes to the
last statement. Returns count of statements left to move. `Statements'
do not include blank, comment, or continuation lines."
(interactive "p") ; numeric prefix arg
(if (< count 0) (py-previous-statement (- count))
(beginning-of-line)
(let (start)
(while (and
(setq start (point)) ; always true -- side effect
(> count 0)
(py-goto-statement-below))
(setq count (1- count)))
(if (> count 0) (goto-char start)))
count))
(defun py-goto-block-up (&optional nomark)
"Move up to start of current block.
Go to the statement that starts the smallest enclosing block; roughly
speaking, this will be the closest preceding statement that ends with a
colon and is indented less than the statement you started on. If
successful, also sets the mark to the starting point.
`\\[py-mark-block]' can be used afterward to mark the whole code
block, if desired.
If called from a program, the mark will not be set if optional argument
NOMARK is not nil."
(interactive)
(let ((start (point))
(found nil)
initial-indent)
(py-goto-initial-line)
;; if on blank or non-indenting comment line, use the preceding stmt
(if (looking-at "[ \t]*\\($\\|#[^ \t\n]\\)")
(progn
(py-goto-statement-at-or-above)
(setq found (py-statement-opens-block-p))))
;; search back for colon line indented less
(setq initial-indent (current-indentation))
(if (zerop initial-indent)
;; force fast exit
(goto-char (point-min)))
(while (not (or found (bobp)))
(setq found
(and
(re-search-backward ":[ \t]*\\($\\|[#\\]\\)" nil 'move)
(or (py-goto-initial-line) t) ; always true -- side effect
(< (current-indentation) initial-indent)
(py-statement-opens-block-p))))
(if found
(progn
(or nomark (push-mark start))
(back-to-indentation))
(goto-char start)
(error "Enclosing block not found"))))
(defun py-beginning-of-def-or-class (&optional class count)
"Move point to start of `def' or `class'.
Searches back for the closest preceding `def'. If you supply a prefix
arg, looks for a `class' instead. The docs below assume the `def'
case; just substitute `class' for `def' for the other case.
Programmatically, if CLASS is `either', then moves to either `class'
or `def'.
When second optional argument is given programmatically, move to the
COUNTth start of `def'.
If point is in a `def' statement already, and after the `d', simply
moves point to the start of the statement.
Otherwise (i.e. when point is not in a `def' statement, or at or
before the `d' of a `def' statement), searches for the closest
preceding `def' statement, and leaves point at its start. If no such
statement can be found, leaves point at the start of the buffer.
Returns t iff a `def' statement is found by these rules.
Note that doing this command repeatedly will take you closer to the
start of the buffer each time.
To mark the current `def', see `\\[py-mark-def-or-class]'."
(interactive "P") ; raw prefix arg
(setq count (or count 1))
(let ((at-or-before-p (<= (current-column) (current-indentation)))
(start-of-line (goto-char (py-point 'bol)))
(start-of-stmt (goto-char (py-point 'bos)))
(start-re (cond ((eq class 'either) "^[ \t]*\\(class\\|def\\)\\>")
(class "^[ \t]*class\\>")
(t "^[ \t]*def\\>")))
)
;; searching backward
(if (and (< 0 count)
(or (/= start-of-stmt start-of-line)
(not at-or-before-p)))
(end-of-line))
;; search forward
(if (and (> 0 count)
(zerop (current-column))
(looking-at start-re))
(end-of-line))
(if (re-search-backward start-re nil 'move count)
(goto-char (match-beginning 0)))))
;; Backwards compatibility
(defalias 'beginning-of-python-def-or-class 'py-beginning-of-def-or-class)
(defun py-end-of-def-or-class (&optional class count)
"Move point beyond end of `def' or `class' body.
By default, looks for an appropriate `def'. If you supply a prefix
arg, looks for a `class' instead. The docs below assume the `def'
case; just substitute `class' for `def' for the other case.
Programmatically, if CLASS is `either', then moves to either `class'
or `def'.
When second optional argument is given programmatically, move to the
COUNTth end of `def'.
If point is in a `def' statement already, this is the `def' we use.
Else, if the `def' found by `\\[py-beginning-of-def-or-class]'
contains the statement you started on, that's the `def' we use.
Otherwise, we search forward for the closest following `def', and use that.
If a `def' can be found by these rules, point is moved to the start of
the line immediately following the `def' block, and the position of the
start of the `def' is returned.
Else point is moved to the end of the buffer, and nil is returned.
Note that doing this command repeatedly will take you closer to the
end of the buffer each time.
To mark the current `def', see `\\[py-mark-def-or-class]'."
(interactive "P") ; raw prefix arg
(if (and count (/= count 1))
(py-beginning-of-def-or-class (- 1 count)))
(let ((start (progn (py-goto-initial-line) (point)))
(which (cond ((eq class 'either) "\\(class\\|def\\)")
(class "class")
(t "def")))
(state 'not-found))
;; move point to start of appropriate def/class
(if (looking-at (concat "[ \t]*" which "\\>")) ; already on one
(setq state 'at-beginning)
;; else see if py-beginning-of-def-or-class hits container
(if (and (py-beginning-of-def-or-class class)
(progn (py-goto-beyond-block)
(> (point) start)))
(setq state 'at-end)
;; else search forward
(goto-char start)
(if (re-search-forward (concat "^[ \t]*" which "\\>") nil 'move)
(progn (setq state 'at-beginning)
(beginning-of-line)))))
(cond
((eq state 'at-beginning) (py-goto-beyond-block) t)
((eq state 'at-end) t)
((eq state 'not-found) nil)
(t (error "Internal error in `py-end-of-def-or-class'")))))
;; Backwards compabitility
(defalias 'end-of-python-def-or-class 'py-end-of-def-or-class)
;; Functions for marking regions
(defun py-mark-block (&optional extend just-move)
"Mark following block of lines. With prefix arg, mark structure.
Easier to use than explain. It sets the region to an `interesting'
block of succeeding lines. If point is on a blank line, it goes down to
the next non-blank line. That will be the start of the region. The end
of the region depends on the kind of line at the start:
- If a comment, the region will include all succeeding comment lines up
to (but not including) the next non-comment line (if any).
- Else if a prefix arg is given, and the line begins one of these
structures:
if elif else try except finally for while def class
the region will be set to the body of the structure, including
following blocks that `belong' to it, but excluding trailing blank
and comment lines. E.g., if on a `try' statement, the `try' block
and all (if any) of the following `except' and `finally' blocks
that belong to the `try' structure will be in the region. Ditto
for if/elif/else, for/else and while/else structures, and (a bit
degenerate, since they're always one-block structures) def and
class blocks.
- Else if no prefix argument is given, and the line begins a Python
block (see list above), and the block is not a `one-liner' (i.e.,
the statement ends with a colon, not with code), the region will
include all succeeding lines up to (but not including) the next
code statement (if any) that's indented no more than the starting
line, except that trailing blank and comment lines are excluded.
E.g., if the starting line begins a multi-statement `def'
structure, the region will be set to the full function definition,
but without any trailing `noise' lines.
- Else the region will include all succeeding lines up to (but not
including) the next blank line, or code or indenting-comment line
indented strictly less than the starting line. Trailing indenting
comment lines are included in this case, but not trailing blank
lines.
A msg identifying the location of the mark is displayed in the echo
area; or do `\\[exchange-point-and-mark]' to flip down to the end.
If called from a program, optional argument EXTEND plays the role of
the prefix arg, and if optional argument JUST-MOVE is not nil, just
moves to the end of the block (& does not set mark or display a msg)."
(interactive "P") ; raw prefix arg
(py-goto-initial-line)
;; skip over blank lines
(while (and
(looking-at "[ \t]*$") ; while blank line
(not (eobp))) ; & somewhere to go
(forward-line 1))
(if (eobp)
(error "Hit end of buffer without finding a non-blank stmt"))
(let ((initial-pos (point))
(initial-indent (current-indentation))
last-pos ; position of last stmt in region
(followers
'((if elif else) (elif elif else) (else)
(try except finally) (except except) (finally)
(for else) (while else)
(def) (class) ) )
first-symbol next-symbol)
(cond
;; if comment line, suck up the following comment lines
((looking-at "[ \t]*#")
(re-search-forward "^[ \t]*[^ \t#]" nil 'move) ; look for non-comment
(re-search-backward "^[ \t]*#") ; and back to last comment in block
(setq last-pos (point)))
;; else if line is a block line and EXTEND given, suck up
;; the whole structure
((and extend
(setq first-symbol (py-suck-up-first-keyword) )
(assq first-symbol followers))
(while (and
(or (py-goto-beyond-block) t) ; side effect
(forward-line -1) ; side effect
(setq last-pos (point)) ; side effect
(py-goto-statement-below)
(= (current-indentation) initial-indent)
(setq next-symbol (py-suck-up-first-keyword))
(memq next-symbol (cdr (assq first-symbol followers))))
(setq first-symbol next-symbol)))
;; else if line *opens* a block, search for next stmt indented <=
((py-statement-opens-block-p)
(while (and
(setq last-pos (point)) ; always true -- side effect
(py-goto-statement-below)
(> (current-indentation) initial-indent))
nil))
;; else plain code line; stop at next blank line, or stmt or
;; indenting comment line indented <
(t
(while (and
(setq last-pos (point)) ; always true -- side effect
(or (py-goto-beyond-final-line) t)
(not (looking-at "[ \t]*$")) ; stop at blank line
(or
(>= (current-indentation) initial-indent)
(looking-at "[ \t]*#[^ \t\n]"))) ; ignore non-indenting #
nil)))
;; skip to end of last stmt
(goto-char last-pos)
(py-goto-beyond-final-line)
;; set mark & display
(if just-move
() ; just return
(push-mark (point) 'no-msg)
(forward-line -1)
(message "Mark set after: %s" (py-suck-up-leading-text))
(goto-char initial-pos))))
(defun py-mark-def-or-class (&optional class)
"Set region to body of def (or class, with prefix arg) enclosing point.
Pushes the current mark, then point, on the mark ring (all language
modes do this, but although it's handy it's never documented ...).
In most Emacs language modes, this function bears at least a
hallucinogenic resemblance to `\\[py-end-of-def-or-class]' and
`\\[py-beginning-of-def-or-class]'.
And in earlier versions of Python mode, all 3 were tightly connected.
Turned out that was more confusing than useful: the `goto start' and
`goto end' commands are usually used to search through a file, and
people expect them to act a lot like `search backward' and `search
forward' string-search commands. But because Python `def' and `class'
can nest to arbitrary levels, finding the smallest def containing
point cannot be done via a simple backward search: the def containing
point may not be the closest preceding def, or even the closest
preceding def that's indented less. The fancy algorithm required is
appropriate for the usual uses of this `mark' command, but not for the
`goto' variations.
So the def marked by this command may not be the one either of the
`goto' commands find: If point is on a blank or non-indenting comment
line, moves back to start of the closest preceding code statement or
indenting comment line. If this is a `def' statement, that's the def
we use. Else searches for the smallest enclosing `def' block and uses
that. Else signals an error.
When an enclosing def is found: The mark is left immediately beyond
the last line of the def block. Point is left at the start of the
def, except that: if the def is preceded by a number of comment lines
followed by (at most) one optional blank line, point is left at the
start of the comments; else if the def is preceded by a blank line,
point is left at its start.
The intent is to mark the containing def/class and its associated
documentation, to make moving and duplicating functions and classes
pleasant."
(interactive "P") ; raw prefix arg
(let ((start (point))
(which (cond ((eq class 'either) "\\(class\\|def\\)")
(class "class")
(t "def"))))
(push-mark start)
(if (not (py-go-up-tree-to-keyword which))
(progn (goto-char start)
(error "Enclosing %s not found"
(if (eq class 'either)
"def or class"
which)))
;; else enclosing def/class found
(setq start (point))
(py-goto-beyond-block)
(push-mark (point))
(goto-char start)
(if (zerop (forward-line -1)) ; if there is a preceding line
(progn
(if (looking-at "[ \t]*$") ; it's blank
(setq start (point)) ; so reset start point
(goto-char start)) ; else try again
(if (zerop (forward-line -1))
(if (looking-at "[ \t]*#") ; a comment
;; look back for non-comment line
;; tricky: note that the regexp matches a blank
;; line, cuz \n is in the 2nd character class
(and
(re-search-backward "^[ \t]*[^ \t#]" nil 'move)
(forward-line 1))
;; no comment, so go back
(goto-char start)))))))
(exchange-point-and-mark)
(py-keep-region-active))
;; ripped from cc-mode
(defun py-forward-into-nomenclature (&optional arg)
"Move forward to end of a nomenclature section or word.
With \\[universal-argument] (programmatically, optional argument ARG),
do it that many times.
A `nomenclature' is a fancy way of saying AWordWithMixedCaseNotUnderscores."
(interactive "p")
(let ((case-fold-search nil))
(if (> arg 0)
(re-search-forward
"\\(\\W\\|[_]\\)*\\([A-Z]*[a-z0-9]*\\)"
(point-max) t arg)
(while (and (< arg 0)
(re-search-backward
"\\(\\W\\|[a-z0-9]\\)[A-Z]+\\|\\(\\W\\|[_]\\)\\w+"
(point-min) 0))
(forward-char 1)
(setq arg (1+ arg)))))
(py-keep-region-active))
(defun py-backward-into-nomenclature (&optional arg)
"Move backward to beginning of a nomenclature section or word.
With optional ARG, move that many times. If ARG is negative, move
forward.
A `nomenclature' is a fancy way of saying AWordWithMixedCaseNotUnderscores."
(interactive "p")
(py-forward-into-nomenclature (- arg))
(py-keep-region-active))
;; Documentation functions
;; dump the long form of the mode blurb; does the usual doc escapes,
;; plus lines of the form ^[vc]:name$ to suck variable & command docs
;; out of the right places, along with the keys they're on & current
;; values
(defun py-dump-help-string (str)
(with-output-to-temp-buffer "*Help*"
(let ((locals (buffer-local-variables))
funckind funcname func funcdoc
(start 0) mstart end
keys )
(while (string-match "^%\\([vc]\\):\\(.+\\)\n" str start)
(setq mstart (match-beginning 0) end (match-end 0)
funckind (substring str (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1))
funcname (substring str (match-beginning 2) (match-end 2))
func (intern funcname))
(princ (substitute-command-keys (substring str start mstart)))
(cond
((equal funckind "c") ; command
(setq funcdoc (documentation func)
keys (concat
"Key(s): "
(mapconcat 'key-description
(where-is-internal func py-mode-map)
", "))))
((equal funckind "v") ; variable
(setq funcdoc (documentation-property func 'variable-documentation)
keys (if (assq func locals)
(concat
"Local/Global values: "
(prin1-to-string (symbol-value func))
" / "
(prin1-to-string (default-value func)))
(concat
"Value: "
(prin1-to-string (symbol-value func))))))
(t ; unexpected
(error "Error in py-dump-help-string, tag `%s'" funckind)))
(princ (format "\n-> %s:\t%s\t%s\n\n"
(if (equal funckind "c") "Command" "Variable")
funcname keys))
(princ funcdoc)
(terpri)
(setq start end))
(princ (substitute-command-keys (substring str start))))
(print-help-return-message)))
(defun py-describe-mode ()
"Dump long form of Python-mode docs."
(interactive)
(py-dump-help-string "Major mode for editing Python files.
Knows about Python indentation, tokens, comments and continuation lines.
Paragraphs are separated by blank lines only.
Major sections below begin with the string `@'; specific function and
variable docs begin with `->'.
@EXECUTING PYTHON CODE
\\[py-execute-import-or-reload]\timports or reloads the file in the Python interpreter
\\[py-execute-buffer]\tsends the entire buffer to the Python interpreter
\\[py-execute-region]\tsends the current region
\\[py-execute-def-or-class]\tsends the current function or class definition
\\[py-execute-string]\tsends an arbitrary string
\\[py-shell]\tstarts a Python interpreter window; this will be used by
\tsubsequent Python execution commands
%c:py-execute-import-or-reload
%c:py-execute-buffer
%c:py-execute-region
%c:py-execute-def-or-class
%c:py-execute-string
%c:py-shell
@VARIABLES
py-indent-offset\tindentation increment
py-block-comment-prefix\tcomment string used by comment-region
py-python-command\tshell command to invoke Python interpreter
py-temp-directory\tdirectory used for temp files (if needed)
py-beep-if-tab-change\tring the bell if tab-width is changed
%v:py-indent-offset
%v:py-block-comment-prefix
%v:py-python-command
%v:py-temp-directory
%v:py-beep-if-tab-change
@KINDS OF LINES
Each physical line in the file is either a `continuation line' (the
preceding line ends with a backslash that's not part of a comment, or
the paren/bracket/brace nesting level at the start of the line is
non-zero, or both) or an `initial line' (everything else).
An initial line is in turn a `blank line' (contains nothing except
possibly blanks or tabs), a `comment line' (leftmost non-blank
character is `#'), or a `code line' (everything else).
Comment Lines
Although all comment lines are treated alike by Python, Python mode
recognizes two kinds that act differently with respect to indentation.
An `indenting comment line' is a comment line with a blank, tab or
nothing after the initial `#'. The indentation commands (see below)
treat these exactly as if they were code lines: a line following an
indenting comment line will be indented like the comment line. All
other comment lines (those with a non-whitespace character immediately
following the initial `#') are `non-indenting comment lines', and
their indentation is ignored by the indentation commands.
Indenting comment lines are by far the usual case, and should be used
whenever possible. Non-indenting comment lines are useful in cases
like these:
\ta = b # a very wordy single-line comment that ends up being
\t #... continued onto another line
\tif a == b:
##\t\tprint 'panic!' # old code we've `commented out'
\t\treturn a
Since the `#...' and `##' comment lines have a non-whitespace
character following the initial `#', Python mode ignores them when
computing the proper indentation for the next line.
Continuation Lines and Statements
The Python-mode commands generally work on statements instead of on
individual lines, where a `statement' is a comment or blank line, or a
code line and all of its following continuation lines (if any)
considered as a single logical unit. The commands in this mode
generally (when it makes sense) automatically move to the start of the
statement containing point, even if point happens to be in the middle
of some continuation line.
@INDENTATION
Primarily for entering new code:
\t\\[indent-for-tab-command]\t indent line appropriately
\t\\[py-newline-and-indent]\t insert newline, then indent
\t\\[py-electric-backspace]\t reduce indentation, or delete single character
Primarily for reindenting existing code:
\t\\[py-guess-indent-offset]\t guess py-indent-offset from file content; change locally
\t\\[universal-argument] \\[py-guess-indent-offset]\t ditto, but change globally
\t\\[py-indent-region]\t reindent region to match its context
\t\\[py-shift-region-left]\t shift region left by py-indent-offset
\t\\[py-shift-region-right]\t shift region right by py-indent-offset
Unlike most programming languages, Python uses indentation, and only
indentation, to specify block structure. Hence the indentation supplied
automatically by Python-mode is just an educated guess: only you know
the block structure you intend, so only you can supply correct
indentation.
The \\[indent-for-tab-command] and \\[py-newline-and-indent] keys try to suggest plausible indentation, based on
the indentation of preceding statements. E.g., assuming
py-indent-offset is 4, after you enter
\tif a > 0: \\[py-newline-and-indent]
the cursor will be moved to the position of the `_' (_ is not a
character in the file, it's just used here to indicate the location of
the cursor):
\tif a > 0:
\t _
If you then enter `c = d' \\[py-newline-and-indent], the cursor will move
to
\tif a > 0:
\t c = d
\t _
Python-mode cannot know whether that's what you intended, or whether
\tif a > 0:
\t c = d
\t_
was your intent. In general, Python-mode either reproduces the
indentation of the (closest code or indenting-comment) preceding
statement, or adds an extra py-indent-offset blanks if the preceding
statement has `:' as its last significant (non-whitespace and non-
comment) character. If the suggested indentation is too much, use
\\[py-electric-backspace] to reduce it.
Continuation lines are given extra indentation. If you don't like the
suggested indentation, change it to something you do like, and Python-
mode will strive to indent later lines of the statement in the same way.
If a line is a continuation line by virtue of being in an unclosed
paren/bracket/brace structure (`list', for short), the suggested
indentation depends on whether the current line contains the first item
in the list. If it does, it's indented py-indent-offset columns beyond
the indentation of the line containing the open bracket. If you don't
like that, change it by hand. The remaining items in the list will mimic
whatever indentation you give to the first item.
If a line is a continuation line because the line preceding it ends with
a backslash, the third and following lines of the statement inherit their
indentation from the line preceding them. The indentation of the second
line in the statement depends on the form of the first (base) line: if
the base line is an assignment statement with anything more interesting
than the backslash following the leftmost assigning `=', the second line
is indented two columns beyond that `='. Else it's indented to two
columns beyond the leftmost solid chunk of non-whitespace characters on
the base line.
Warning: indent-region should not normally be used! It calls \\[indent-for-tab-command]
repeatedly, and as explained above, \\[indent-for-tab-command] can't guess the block
structure you intend.
%c:indent-for-tab-command
%c:py-newline-and-indent
%c:py-electric-backspace
The next function may be handy when editing code you didn't write:
%c:py-guess-indent-offset
The remaining `indent' functions apply to a region of Python code. They
assume the block structure (equals indentation, in Python) of the region
is correct, and alter the indentation in various ways while preserving
the block structure:
%c:py-indent-region
%c:py-shift-region-left
%c:py-shift-region-right
@MARKING & MANIPULATING REGIONS OF CODE
\\[py-mark-block]\t mark block of lines
\\[py-mark-def-or-class]\t mark smallest enclosing def
\\[universal-argument] \\[py-mark-def-or-class]\t mark smallest enclosing class
\\[comment-region]\t comment out region of code
\\[universal-argument] \\[comment-region]\t uncomment region of code
%c:py-mark-block
%c:py-mark-def-or-class
%c:comment-region
@MOVING POINT
\\[py-previous-statement]\t move to statement preceding point
\\[py-next-statement]\t move to statement following point
\\[py-goto-block-up]\t move up to start of current block
\\[py-beginning-of-def-or-class]\t move to start of def
\\[universal-argument] \\[py-beginning-of-def-or-class]\t move to start of class
\\[py-end-of-def-or-class]\t move to end of def
\\[universal-argument] \\[py-end-of-def-or-class]\t move to end of class
The first two move to one statement beyond the statement that contains
point. A numeric prefix argument tells them to move that many
statements instead. Blank lines, comment lines, and continuation lines
do not count as `statements' for these commands. So, e.g., you can go
to the first code statement in a file by entering
\t\\[beginning-of-buffer]\t to move to the top of the file
\t\\[py-next-statement]\t to skip over initial comments and blank lines
Or do `\\[py-previous-statement]' with a huge prefix argument.
%c:py-previous-statement
%c:py-next-statement
%c:py-goto-block-up
%c:py-beginning-of-def-or-class
%c:py-end-of-def-or-class
@LITTLE-KNOWN EMACS COMMANDS PARTICULARLY USEFUL IN PYTHON MODE
`\\[indent-new-comment-line]' is handy for entering a multi-line comment.
`\\[set-selective-display]' with a `small' prefix arg is ideally suited for viewing the
overall class and def structure of a module.
`\\[back-to-indentation]' moves point to a line's first non-blank character.
`\\[indent-relative]' is handy for creating odd indentation.
@OTHER EMACS HINTS
If you don't like the default value of a variable, change its value to
whatever you do like by putting a `setq' line in your .emacs file.
E.g., to set the indentation increment to 4, put this line in your
.emacs:
\t(setq py-indent-offset 4)
To see the value of a variable, do `\\[describe-variable]' and enter the variable
name at the prompt.
When entering a key sequence like `C-c C-n', it is not necessary to
release the CONTROL key after doing the `C-c' part -- it suffices to
press the CONTROL key, press and release `c' (while still holding down
CONTROL), press and release `n' (while still holding down CONTROL), &
then release CONTROL.
Entering Python mode calls with no arguments the value of the variable
`python-mode-hook', if that value exists and is not nil; for backward
compatibility it also tries `py-mode-hook'; see the `Hooks' section of
the Elisp manual for details.
Obscure: When python-mode is first loaded, it looks for all bindings
to newline-and-indent in the global keymap, and shadows them with
local bindings to py-newline-and-indent."))
;; Helper functions
(defvar py-parse-state-re
(concat
"^[ \t]*\\(if\\|elif\\|else\\|while\\|def\\|class\\)\\>"
"\\|"
"^[^ #\t\n]"))
(defun py-parse-state ()
"Return the parse state at point (see `parse-partial-sexp' docs)."
(save-excursion
(let ((here (point))
pps done)
(while (not done)
;; back up to the first preceding line (if any; else start of
;; buffer) that begins with a popular Python keyword, or a
;; non- whitespace and non-comment character. These are good
;; places to start parsing to see whether where we started is
;; at a non-zero nesting level. It may be slow for people who
;; write huge code blocks or huge lists ... tough beans.
(re-search-backward py-parse-state-re nil 'move)
(beginning-of-line)
;; In XEmacs, we have a much better way to test for whether
;; we're in a triple-quoted string or not. Emacs does not
;; have this built-in function, which is its loss because
;; without scanning from the beginning of the buffer, there's
;; no accurate way to determine this otherwise.
(if (not (fboundp 'buffer-syntactic-context))
;; Emacs
(progn
(save-excursion (setq pps (parse-partial-sexp (point) here)))
;; make sure we don't land inside a triple-quoted string
(setq done (or (not (nth 3 pps))
(bobp)))
;; Just go ahead and short circuit the test back to the
;; beginning of the buffer. This will be slow, but not
;; nearly as slow as looping through many
;; re-search-backwards.
(if (not done)
(goto-char (point-min))))
;; XEmacs
(setq done (or (not (buffer-syntactic-context))
(bobp)))
(when done
(setq pps (parse-partial-sexp (point) here)))
))
pps)))
(defun py-nesting-level ()
"Return the buffer position of the last unclosed enclosing list.
If nesting level is zero, return nil."
(let ((status (py-parse-state)))
(if (zerop (car status))
nil ; not in a nest
(car (cdr status))))) ; char# of open bracket
(defun py-backslash-continuation-line-p ()
"Return t iff preceding line ends with backslash that is not in a comment."
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(and
;; use a cheap test first to avoid the regexp if possible
;; use 'eq' because char-after may return nil
(eq (char-after (- (point) 2)) ?\\ )
;; make sure; since eq test passed, there is a preceding line
(forward-line -1) ; always true -- side effect
(looking-at py-continued-re))))
(defun py-continuation-line-p ()
"Return t iff current line is a continuation line."
(save-excursion
(beginning-of-line)
(or (py-backslash-continuation-line-p)
(py-nesting-level))))
(defun py-goto-beginning-of-tqs (delim)
"Go to the beginning of the triple quoted string we find ourselves in.
DELIM is the TQS string delimiter character we're searching backwards
for."
(let ((skip (and delim (make-string 1 delim))))
(when skip
(save-excursion
(py-safe (search-backward skip))
(if (and (eq (char-before) delim)
(eq (char-before (1- (point))) delim))
(setq skip (make-string 3 delim))))
;; we're looking at a triple-quoted string
(py-safe (search-backward skip)))))
(defun py-goto-initial-line ()
"Go to the initial line of the current statement.
Usually this is the line we're on, but if we're on the 2nd or
following lines of a continuation block, we need to go up to the first
line of the block."
;; Tricky: We want to avoid quadratic-time behavior for long
;; continued blocks, whether of the backslash or open-bracket
;; varieties, or a mix of the two. The following manages to do that
;; in the usual cases.
;;
;; Also, if we're sitting inside a triple quoted string, this will
;; drop us at the line that begins the string.
(let (open-bracket-pos)
(while (py-continuation-line-p)
(beginning-of-line)
(if (py-backslash-continuation-line-p)
(while (py-backslash-continuation-line-p)
(forward-line -1))
;; else zip out of nested brackets/braces/parens
(while (setq open-bracket-pos (py-nesting-level))
(goto-char open-bracket-pos)))))
(beginning-of-line))
(defun py-goto-beyond-final-line ()
"Go to the point just beyond the fine line of the current statement.
Usually this is the start of the next line, but if this is a
multi-line statement we need to skip over the continuation lines."
;; Tricky: Again we need to be clever to avoid quadratic time
;; behavior.
;;
;; XXX: Not quite the right solution, but deals with multi-line doc
;; strings
(if (looking-at (concat "[ \t]*\\(" py-stringlit-re "\\)"))
(goto-char (match-end 0)))
;;
(forward-line 1)
(let (state)
(while (and (py-continuation-line-p)
(not (eobp)))
;; skip over the backslash flavor
(while (and (py-backslash-continuation-line-p)
(not (eobp)))
(forward-line 1))
;; if in nest, zip to the end of the nest
(setq state (py-parse-state))
(if (and (not (zerop (car state)))
(not (eobp)))
(progn
(parse-partial-sexp (point) (point-max) 0 nil state)
(forward-line 1))))))
(defun py-statement-opens-block-p ()
"Return t iff the current statement opens a block.
I.e., iff it ends with a colon that is not in a comment. Point should
be at the start of a statement."
(save-excursion
(let ((start (point))
(finish (progn (py-goto-beyond-final-line) (1- (point))))
(searching t)
(answer nil)
state)
(goto-char start)
(while searching
;; look for a colon with nothing after it except whitespace, and
;; maybe a comment
(if (re-search-forward ":\\([ \t]\\|\\\\\n\\)*\\(#.*\\)?$"
finish t)
(if (eq (point) finish) ; note: no `else' clause; just
; keep searching if we're not at
; the end yet
;; sure looks like it opens a block -- but it might
;; be in a comment
(progn
(setq searching nil) ; search is done either way
(setq state (parse-partial-sexp start
(match-beginning 0)))
(setq answer (not (nth 4 state)))))
;; search failed: couldn't find another interesting colon
(setq searching nil)))
answer)))
(defun py-statement-closes-block-p ()
"Return t iff the current statement closes a block.
I.e., if the line starts with `return', `raise', `break', `continue',
and `pass'. This doesn't catch embedded statements."
(let ((here (point)))
(py-goto-initial-line)
(back-to-indentation)
(prog1
(looking-at (concat py-block-closing-keywords-re "\\>"))
(goto-char here))))
(defun py-goto-beyond-block ()
"Go to point just beyond the final line of block begun by the current line.
This is the same as where `py-goto-beyond-final-line' goes unless
we're on colon line, in which case we go to the end of the block.
Assumes point is at the beginning of the line."
(if (py-statement-opens-block-p)
(py-mark-block nil 'just-move)
(py-goto-beyond-final-line)))
(defun py-goto-statement-at-or-above ()
"Go to the start of the first statement at or preceding point.
Return t if there is such a statement, otherwise nil. `Statement'
does not include blank lines, comments, or continuation lines."
(py-goto-initial-line)
(if (looking-at py-blank-or-comment-re)
;; skip back over blank & comment lines
;; note: will skip a blank or comment line that happens to be
;; a continuation line too
(if (re-search-backward "^[ \t]*[^ \t#\n]" nil t)
(progn (py-goto-initial-line) t)
nil)
t))
(defun py-goto-statement-below ()
"Go to start of the first statement following the statement containing point.
Return t if there is such a statement, otherwise nil. `Statement'
does not include blank lines, comments, or continuation lines."
(beginning-of-line)
(let ((start (point)))
(py-goto-beyond-final-line)
(while (and
(looking-at py-blank-or-comment-re)
(not (eobp)))
(forward-line 1))
(if (eobp)
(progn (goto-char start) nil)
t)))
(defun py-go-up-tree-to-keyword (key)
"Go to begining of statement starting with KEY, at or preceding point.
KEY is a regular expression describing a Python keyword. Skip blank
lines and non-indenting comments. If the statement found starts with
KEY, then stop, otherwise go back to first enclosing block starting
with KEY. If successful, leave point at the start of the KEY line and
return t. Otherwise, leav point at an undefined place and return nil."
;; skip blanks and non-indenting #
(py-goto-initial-line)
(while (and
(looking-at "[ \t]*\\($\\|#[^ \t\n]\\)")
(zerop (forward-line -1))) ; go back
nil)
(py-goto-initial-line)
(let* ((re (concat "[ \t]*" key "\\b"))
(case-fold-search nil) ; let* so looking-at sees this
(found (looking-at re))
(dead nil))
(while (not (or found dead))
(condition-case nil ; in case no enclosing block
(py-goto-block-up 'no-mark)
(error (setq dead t)))
(or dead (setq found (looking-at re))))
(beginning-of-line)
found))
(defun py-suck-up-leading-text ()
"Return string in buffer from start of indentation to end of line.
Prefix with \"...\" if leading whitespace was skipped."
(save-excursion
(back-to-indentation)
(concat
(if (bolp) "" "...")
(buffer-substring (point) (progn (end-of-line) (point))))))
(defun py-suck-up-first-keyword ()
"Return first keyword on the line as a Lisp symbol.
`Keyword' is defined (essentially) as the regular expression
([a-z]+). Returns nil if none was found."
(let ((case-fold-search nil))
(if (looking-at "[ \t]*\\([a-z]+\\)\\b")
(intern (buffer-substring (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1)))
nil)))
(defun py-current-defun ()
"Python value for `add-log-current-defun-function'.
This tells add-log.el how to find the current function/method/variable."
(save-excursion
(if (re-search-backward py-defun-start-re nil t)
(or (match-string 3)
(let ((method (match-string 2)))
(if (and (not (zerop (length (match-string 1))))
(re-search-backward py-class-start-re nil t))
(concat (match-string 1) "." method)
method)))
nil)))
(defconst py-help-address "python-mode@python.org"
"Address accepting submission of bug reports.")
(defun py-version ()
"Echo the current version of `python-mode' in the minibuffer."
(interactive)
(message "Using `python-mode' version %s" py-version)
(py-keep-region-active))
;; only works under Emacs 19
;(eval-when-compile
; (require 'reporter))
(defun py-submit-bug-report (enhancement-p)
"Submit via mail a bug report on `python-mode'.
With \\[universal-argument] (programmatically, argument ENHANCEMENT-P
non-nil) just submit an enhancement request."
(interactive
(list (not (y-or-n-p
"Is this a bug report (hit `n' to send other comments)? "))))
(let ((reporter-prompt-for-summary-p (if enhancement-p
"(Very) brief summary: "
t)))
(require 'reporter)
(reporter-submit-bug-report
py-help-address ;address
(concat "python-mode " py-version) ;pkgname
;; varlist
(if enhancement-p nil
'(py-python-command
py-indent-offset
py-block-comment-prefix
py-temp-directory
py-beep-if-tab-change))
nil ;pre-hooks
nil ;post-hooks
"Dear Barry,") ;salutation
(if enhancement-p nil
(set-mark (point))
(insert
"Please replace this text with a sufficiently large code sample\n\
and an exact recipe so that I can reproduce your problem. Failure\n\
to do so may mean a greater delay in fixing your bug.\n\n")
(exchange-point-and-mark)
(py-keep-region-active))))
(defun py-kill-emacs-hook ()
"Delete files in `py-file-queue'.
These are Python temporary files awaiting execution."
(mapcar #'(lambda (filename)
(py-safe (delete-file filename)))
py-file-queue))
;; arrange to kill temp files when Emacs exists
(add-hook 'kill-emacs-hook 'py-kill-emacs-hook)
(provide 'python-mode)
;;; python-mode.el ends here
\n\nClass definitions, like function definitions, may be wrapped by one or\nmore *decorator* expressions. The evaluation rules for the decorator\nexpressions are the same as for functions. The result must be a class\nobject, which is then bound to the class name.\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] The exception is propagated to the invocation stack only if there\n is no ``finally`` clause that negates the exception.\n\n[2] Currently, control "flows off the end" except in the case of an\n exception or the execution of a ``return``, ``continue``, or\n ``break`` statement.\n\n[3] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function\n body is transformed into the function\'s ``__doc__`` attribute and\n therefore the function\'s *docstring*.\n\n[4] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class\n body is transformed into the namespace\'s ``__doc__`` item and\n therefore the class\'s *docstring*.\n',
'comparisons': '\nComparisons\n***********\n\nUnlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority,\nwhich is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise\noperation. Also unlike C, expressions like ``a < b < c`` have the\ninterpretation that is conventional in mathematics:\n\n comparison ::= or_expr ( comp_operator or_expr )*\n comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="\n | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"\n\nComparisons yield boolean values: ``True`` or ``False``.\n\nComparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ``x < y <= z`` is\nequivalent to ``x < y and y <= z``, except that ``y`` is evaluated\nonly once (but in both cases ``z`` is not evaluated at all when ``x <\ny`` is found to be false).\n\nFormally, if *a*, *b*, *c*, ..., *y*, *z* are expressions and *op1*,\n*op2*, ..., *opN* are comparison operators, then ``a op1 b op2 c ... y\nopN z`` is equivalent to ``a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z``,\nexcept that each expression is evaluated at most once.\n\nNote that ``a op1 b op2 c`` doesn\'t imply any kind of comparison\nbetween *a* and *c*, so that, e.g., ``x < y > z`` is perfectly legal\n(though perhaps not pretty).\n\nThe operators ``<``, ``>``, ``==``, ``>=``, ``<=``, and ``!=`` compare\nthe values of two objects. The objects need not have the same type.\nIf both are numbers, they are converted to a common type. Otherwise,\nthe ``==`` and ``!=`` operators *always* consider objects of different\ntypes to be unequal, while the ``<``, ``>``, ``>=`` and ``<=``\noperators raise a ``TypeError`` when comparing objects of different\ntypes that do not implement these operators for the given pair of\ntypes. You can control comparison behavior of objects of non-builtin\ntypes by defining rich comparison methods like ``__gt__()``, described\nin section *Basic customization*.\n\nComparison of objects of the same type depends on the type:\n\n* Numbers are compared arithmetically.\n\n* The values ``float(\'NaN\')`` and ``Decimal(\'NaN\')`` are special. The\n are identical to themselves, ``x is x`` but are not equal to\n themselves, ``x != x``. Additionally, comparing any value to a\n not-a-number value will return ``False``. For example, both ``3 <\n float(\'NaN\')`` and ``float(\'NaN\') < 3`` will return ``False``.\n\n* Bytes objects are compared lexicographically using the numeric\n values of their elements.\n\n* Strings are compared lexicographically using the numeric equivalents\n (the result of the built-in function ``ord()``) of their characters.\n [3] String and bytes object can\'t be compared!\n\n* Tuples and lists are compared lexicographically using comparison of\n corresponding elements. This means that to compare equal, each\n element must compare equal and the two sequences must be of the same\n type and have the same length.\n\n If not equal, the sequences are ordered the same as their first\n differing elements. For example, ``[1,2,x] <= [1,2,y]`` has the\n same value as ``x <= y``. If the corresponding element does not\n exist, the shorter sequence is ordered first (for example, ``[1,2] <\n [1,2,3]``).\n\n* Mappings (dictionaries) compare equal if and only if their sorted\n ``(key, value)`` lists compare equal. [4] Outcomes other than\n equality are resolved consistently, but are not otherwise defined.\n [5]\n\n* Sets and frozensets define comparison operators to mean subset and\n superset tests. Those relations do not define total orderings (the\n two sets ``{1,2}`` and {2,3} are not equal, nor subsets of one\n another, nor supersets of one another). Accordingly, sets are not\n appropriate arguments for functions which depend on total ordering.\n For example, ``min()``, ``max()``, and ``sorted()`` produce\n undefined results given a list of sets as inputs.\n\n* Most other objects of builtin types compare unequal unless they are\n the same object; the choice whether one object is considered smaller\n or larger than another one is made arbitrarily but consistently\n within one execution of a program.\n\nComparison of objects of the differing types depends on whether either\nof the types provide explicit support for the comparison. Most\nnumeric types can be compared with one another, but comparisons of\n``float`` and ``Decimal`` are not supported to avoid the inevitable\nconfusion arising from representation issues such as ``float(\'1.1\')``\nbeing inexactly represented and therefore not exactly equal to\n``Decimal(\'1.1\')`` which is. When cross-type comparison is not\nsupported, the comparison method returns ``NotImplemented``. This can\ncreate the illusion of non-transitivity between supported cross-type\ncomparisons and unsupported comparisons. For example, ``Decimal(2) ==\n2`` and *2 == float(2)`* but ``Decimal(2) != float(2)``.\n\nThe operators ``in`` and ``not in`` test for membership. ``x in s``\nevaluates to true if *x* is a member of *s*, and false otherwise. ``x\nnot in s`` returns the negation of ``x in s``. All built-in sequences\nand set types support this as well as dictionary, for which ``in``\ntests whether a the dictionary has a given key. For container types\nsuch as list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the\nexpression ``x in y`` is equivalent to ``any(x is e or x == e for val\ne in y)``.\n\nFor the string and bytes types, ``x in y`` is true if and only if *x*\nis a substring of *y*. An equivalent test is ``y.find(x) != -1``.\nEmpty strings are always considered to be a substring of any other\nstring, so ``"" in "abc"`` will return ``True``.\n\nFor user-defined classes which define the ``__contains__()`` method,\n``x in y`` is true if and only if ``y.__contains__(x)`` is true.\n\nFor user-defined classes which do not define ``__contains__()`` and do\ndefine ``__getitem__()``, ``x in y`` is true if and only if there is a\nnon-negative integer index *i* such that ``x == y[i]``, and all lower\ninteger indices do not raise ``IndexError`` exception. (If any other\nexception is raised, it is as if ``in`` raised that exception).\n\nThe operator ``not in`` is defined to have the inverse true value of\n``in``.\n\nThe operators ``is`` and ``is not`` test for object identity: ``x is\ny`` is true if and only if *x* and *y* are the same object. ``x is\nnot y`` yields the inverse truth value. [6]\n',
'compound': '\nCompound statements\n*******************\n\nCompound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect\nor control the execution of those other statements in some way. In\ngeneral, compound statements span multiple lines, although in simple\nincarnations a whole compound statement may be contained in one line.\n\nThe ``if``, ``while`` and ``for`` statements implement traditional\ncontrol flow constructs. ``try`` specifies exception handlers and/or\ncleanup code for a group of statements, while the ``with`` statement\nallows the execution of initialization and finalization code around a\nblock of code. Function and class definitions are also syntactically\ncompound statements.\n\nCompound statements consist of one or more \'clauses.\' A clause\nconsists of a header and a \'suite.\' The clause headers of a\nparticular compound statement are all at the same indentation level.\nEach clause header begins with a uniquely identifying keyword and ends\nwith a colon. A suite is a group of statements controlled by a\nclause. A suite can be one or more semicolon-separated simple\nstatements on the same line as the header, following the header\'s\ncolon, or it can be one or more indented statements on subsequent\nlines. Only the latter form of suite can contain nested compound\nstatements; the following is illegal, mostly because it wouldn\'t be\nclear to which ``if`` clause a following ``else`` clause would belong:\n\n if test1: if test2: print(x)\n\nAlso note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this\ncontext, so that in the following example, either all or none of the\n``print()`` calls are executed:\n\n if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)\n\nSummarizing:\n\n compound_stmt ::= if_stmt\n | while_stmt\n | for_stmt\n | try_stmt\n | with_stmt\n | funcdef\n | classdef\n suite ::= stmt_list NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT statement+ DEDENT\n statement ::= stmt_list NEWLINE | compound_stmt\n stmt_list ::= simple_stmt (";" simple_stmt)* [";"]\n\nNote that statements always end in a ``NEWLINE`` possibly followed by\na ``DEDENT``. Also note that optional continuation clauses always\nbegin with a keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no\nambiguities (the \'dangling ``else``\' problem is solved in Python by\nrequiring nested ``if`` statements to be indented).\n\nThe formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places\neach clause on a separate line for clarity.\n\n\nThe ``if`` statement\n====================\n\nThe ``if`` statement is used for conditional execution:\n\n if_stmt ::= "if" expression ":" suite\n ( "elif" expression ":" suite )*\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nIt selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one\nby one until one is found to be true (see section *Boolean operations*\nfor the definition of true and false); then that suite is executed\n(and no other part of the ``if`` statement is executed or evaluated).\nIf all expressions are false, the suite of the ``else`` clause, if\npresent, is executed.\n\n\nThe ``while`` statement\n=======================\n\nThe ``while`` statement is used for repeated execution as long as an\nexpression is true:\n\n while_stmt ::= "while" expression ":" suite\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nThis repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the\nfirst suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time\nit is tested) the suite of the ``else`` clause, if present, is\nexecuted and the loop terminates.\n\nA ``break`` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop\nwithout executing the ``else`` clause\'s suite. A ``continue``\nstatement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and\ngoes back to testing the expression.\n\n\nThe ``for`` statement\n=====================\n\nThe ``for`` statement is used to iterate over the elements of a\nsequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:\n\n for_stmt ::= "for" target_list "in" expression_list ":" suite\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nThe expression list is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable\nobject. An iterator is created for the result of the\n``expression_list``. The suite is then executed once for each item\nprovided by the iterator, in the order of ascending indices. Each\nitem in turn is assigned to the target list using the standard rules\nfor assignments (see *Assignment statements*), and then the suite is\nexecuted. When the items are exhausted (which is immediately when the\nsequence is empty or an iterator raises a ``StopIteration``\nexception), the suite in the ``else`` clause, if present, is executed,\nand the loop terminates.\n\nA ``break`` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop\nwithout executing the ``else`` clause\'s suite. A ``continue``\nstatement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and\ncontinues with the next item, or with the ``else`` clause if there was\nno next item.\n\nThe suite may assign to the variable(s) in the target list; this does\nnot affect the next item assigned to it.\n\nNames in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished,\nbut if the sequence is empty, it will not have been assigned to at all\nby the loop. Hint: the built-in function ``range()`` returns an\niterator of integers suitable to emulate the effect of Pascal\'s ``for\ni := a to b do``; e.g., ``list(range(3))`` returns the list ``[0, 1,\n2]``.\n\nNote: There is a subtlety when the sequence is being modified by the loop\n (this can only occur for mutable sequences, i.e. lists). An\n internal counter is used to keep track of which item is used next,\n and this is incremented on each iteration. When this counter has\n reached the length of the sequence the loop terminates. This means\n that if the suite deletes the current (or a previous) item from the\n sequence, the next item will be skipped (since it gets the index of\n the current item which has already been treated). Likewise, if the\n suite inserts an item in the sequence before the current item, the\n current item will be treated again the next time through the loop.\n This can lead to nasty bugs that can be avoided by making a\n temporary copy using a slice of the whole sequence, e.g.,\n\n for x in a[:]:\n if x < 0: a.remove(x)\n\n\nThe ``try`` statement\n=====================\n\nThe ``try`` statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code\nfor a group of statements:\n\n try_stmt ::= try1_stmt | try2_stmt\n try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite\n ("except" [expression ["as" target]] ":" suite)+\n ["else" ":" suite]\n ["finally" ":" suite]\n try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite\n "finally" ":" suite\n\nThe ``except`` clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When\nno exception occurs in the ``try`` clause, no exception handler is\nexecuted. When an exception occurs in the ``try`` suite, a search for\nan exception handler is started. This search inspects the except\nclauses in turn until one is found that matches the exception. An\nexpression-less except clause, if present, must be last; it matches\nany exception. For an except clause with an expression, that\nexpression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception if the\nresulting object is "compatible" with the exception. An object is\ncompatible with an exception if it is the class or a base class of the\nexception object or a tuple containing an item compatible with the\nexception.\n\nIf no except clause matches the exception, the search for an exception\nhandler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.\n[1]\n\nIf the evaluation of an expression in the header of an except clause\nraises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and\na search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on\nthe call stack (it is treated as if the entire ``try`` statement\nraised the exception).\n\nWhen a matching except clause is found, the exception is assigned to\nthe target specified after the ``as`` keyword in that except clause,\nif present, and the except clause\'s suite is executed. All except\nclauses must have an executable block. When the end of this block is\nreached, execution continues normally after the entire try statement.\n(This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same exception,\nand the exception occurs in the try clause of the inner handler, the\nouter handler will not handle the exception.)\n\nWhen an exception has been assigned using ``as target``, it is cleared\nat the end of the except clause. This is as if\n\n except E as N:\n foo\n\nwas translated to\n\n except E as N:\n try:\n foo\n finally:\n N = None\n del N\n\nThat means that you have to assign the exception to a different name\nif you want to be able to refer to it after the except clause. The\nreason for this is that with the traceback attached to them,\nexceptions will form a reference cycle with the stack frame, keeping\nall locals in that frame alive until the next garbage collection\noccurs.\n\nBefore an except clause\'s suite is executed, details about the\nexception are stored in the ``sys`` module and can be access via\n``sys.exc_info()``. ``sys.exc_info()`` returns a 3-tuple consisting\nof: ``exc_type``, the exception class; ``exc_value``, the exception\ninstance; ``exc_traceback``, a traceback object (see section *The\nstandard type hierarchy*) identifying the point in the program where\nthe exception occurred. ``sys.exc_info()`` values are restored to\ntheir previous values (before the call) when returning from a function\nthat handled an exception.\n\nThe optional ``else`` clause is executed if and when control flows off\nthe end of the ``try`` clause. [2] Exceptions in the ``else`` clause\nare not handled by the preceding ``except`` clauses.\n\nIf ``finally`` is present, it specifies a \'cleanup\' handler. The\n``try`` clause is executed, including any ``except`` and ``else``\nclauses. If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is not\nhandled, the exception is temporarily saved. The ``finally`` clause is\nexecuted. If there is a saved exception, it is re-raised at the end\nof the ``finally`` clause. If the ``finally`` clause raises another\nexception or executes a ``return`` or ``break`` statement, the saved\nexception is lost. The exception information is not available to the\nprogram during execution of the ``finally`` clause.\n\nWhen a ``return``, ``break`` or ``continue`` statement is executed in\nthe ``try`` suite of a ``try``...``finally`` statement, the\n``finally`` clause is also executed \'on the way out.\' A ``continue``\nstatement is illegal in the ``finally`` clause. (The reason is a\nproblem with the current implementation --- this restriction may be\nlifted in the future).\n\nAdditional information on exceptions can be found in section\n*Exceptions*, and information on using the ``raise`` statement to\ngenerate exceptions may be found in section *The raise statement*.\n\n\nThe ``with`` statement\n======================\n\nThe ``with`` statement is used to wrap the execution of a block with\nmethods defined by a context manager (see section *With Statement\nContext Managers*). This allows common\n``try``...``except``...``finally`` usage patterns to be encapsulated\nfor convenient reuse.\n\n with_stmt ::= "with" with_item ("," with_item)* ":" suite\n with_item ::= expression ["as" target]\n\nThe execution of the ``with`` statement with one "item" proceeds as\nfollows:\n\n1. The context expression is evaluated to obtain a context manager.\n\n2. The context manager\'s ``__enter__()`` method is invoked.\n\n3. If a target was included in the ``with`` statement, the return\n value from ``__enter__()`` is assigned to it.\n\n Note: The ``with`` statement guarantees that if the ``__enter__()``\n method returns without an error, then ``__exit__()`` will always\n be called. Thus, if an error occurs during the assignment to the\n target list, it will be treated the same as an error occurring\n within the suite would be. See step 5 below.\n\n4. The suite is executed.\n\n5. The context manager\'s ``__exit__()`` method is invoked. If an\n exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and\n traceback are passed as arguments to ``__exit__()``. Otherwise,\n three ``None`` arguments are supplied.\n\n If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value\n from the ``__exit__()`` method was false, the exception is\n reraised. If the return value was true, the exception is\n suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following\n the ``with`` statement.\n\n If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the\n return value from ``__exit__()`` is ignored, and execution proceeds\n at the normal location for the kind of exit that was taken.\n\nWith more than one item, the context managers are processed as if\nmultiple ``with`` statements were nested:\n\n with A() as a, B() as b:\n suite\n\nis equivalent to\n\n with A() as a:\n with B() as b:\n suite\n\nChanged in version 3.1: Support for multiple context expressions.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 0343** - The "with" statement\n The specification, background, and examples for the Python\n ``with`` statement.\n\n\nFunction definitions\n====================\n\nA function definition defines a user-defined function object (see\nsection *The standard type hierarchy*):\n\n funcdef ::= [decorators] "def" funcname "(" [parameter_list] ")" ["->" expression] ":" suite\n decorators ::= decorator+\n decorator ::= "@" dotted_name ["(" [argument_list [","]] ")"] NEWLINE\n dotted_name ::= identifier ("." identifier)*\n parameter_list ::= (defparameter ",")*\n ( "*" [parameter] ("," defparameter)*\n [, "**" parameter]\n | "**" parameter\n | defparameter [","] )\n parameter ::= identifier [":" expression]\n defparameter ::= parameter ["=" expression]\n funcname ::= identifier\n\nA function definition is an executable statement. Its execution binds\nthe function name in the current local namespace to a function object\n(a wrapper around the executable code for the function). This\nfunction object contains a reference to the current global namespace\nas the global namespace to be used when the function is called.\n\nThe function definition does not execute the function body; this gets\nexecuted only when the function is called. [3]\n\nA function definition may be wrapped by one or more *decorator*\nexpressions. Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function is\ndefined, in the scope that contains the function definition. The\nresult must be a callable, which is invoked with the function object\nas the only argument. The returned value is bound to the function name\ninstead of the function object. Multiple decorators are applied in\nnested fashion. For example, the following code\n\n @f1(arg)\n @f2\n def func(): pass\n\nis equivalent to\n\n def func(): pass\n func = f1(arg)(f2(func))\n\nWhen one or more parameters have the form *parameter* ``=``\n*expression*, the function is said to have "default parameter values."\nFor a parameter with a default value, the corresponding argument may\nbe omitted from a call, in which case the parameter\'s default value is\nsubstituted. If a parameter has a default value, all following\nparameters up until the "``*``" must also have a default value ---\nthis is a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.\n\n**Default parameter values are evaluated when the function definition\nis executed.** This means that the expression is evaluated once, when\nthe function is defined, and that that same "pre-computed" value is\nused for each call. This is especially important to understand when a\ndefault parameter is a mutable object, such as a list or a dictionary:\nif the function modifies the object (e.g. by appending an item to a\nlist), the default value is in effect modified. This is generally not\nwhat was intended. A way around this is to use ``None`` as the\ndefault, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function, e.g.:\n\n def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):\n if penguin is None:\n penguin = []\n penguin.append("property of the zoo")\n return penguin\n\nFunction call semantics are described in more detail in section\n*Calls*. A function call always assigns values to all parameters\nmentioned in the parameter list, either from position arguments, from\nkeyword arguments, or from default values. If the form\n"``*identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving\nany excess positional parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple. If\nthe form "``**identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a new\ndictionary receiving any excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new\nempty dictionary. Parameters after "``*``" or "``*identifier``" are\nkeyword-only parameters and may only be passed used keyword arguments.\n\nParameters may have annotations of the form "``: expression``"\nfollowing the parameter name. Any parameter may have an annotation\neven those of the form ``*identifier`` or ``**identifier``. Functions\nmay have "return" annotation of the form "``-> expression``" after the\nparameter list. These annotations can be any valid Python expression\nand are evaluated when the function definition is executed.\nAnnotations may be evaluated in a different order than they appear in\nthe source code. The presence of annotations does not change the\nsemantics of a function. The annotation values are available as\nvalues of a dictionary keyed by the parameters\' names in the\n``__annotations__`` attribute of the function object.\n\nIt is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound\nto a name), for immediate use in expressions. This uses lambda forms,\ndescribed in section *Lambdas*. Note that the lambda form is merely a\nshorthand for a simplified function definition; a function defined in\na "``def``" statement can be passed around or assigned to another name\njust like a function defined by a lambda form. The "``def``" form is\nactually more powerful since it allows the execution of multiple\nstatements and annotations.\n\n**Programmer\'s note:** Functions are first-class objects. A "``def``"\nform executed inside a function definition defines a local function\nthat can be returned or passed around. Free variables used in the\nnested function can access the local variables of the function\ncontaining the def. See section *Naming and binding* for details.\n\n\nClass definitions\n=================\n\nA class definition defines a class object (see section *The standard\ntype hierarchy*):\n\n classdef ::= [decorators] "class" classname [inheritance] ":" suite\n inheritance ::= "(" [expression_list] ")"\n classname ::= identifier\n\nA class definition is an executable statement. It first evaluates the\ninheritance list, if present. Each item in the inheritance list\nshould evaluate to a class object or class type which allows\nsubclassing. The class\'s suite is then executed in a new execution\nframe (see section *Naming and binding*), using a newly created local\nnamespace and the original global namespace. (Usually, the suite\ncontains only function definitions.) When the class\'s suite finishes\nexecution, its execution frame is discarded but its local namespace is\nsaved. [4] A class object is then created using the inheritance list\nfor the base classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute\ndictionary. The class name is bound to this class object in the\noriginal local namespace.\n\nClasses can also be decorated; as with functions,\n\n @f1(arg)\n @f2\n class Foo: pass\n\nis equivalent to\n\n class Foo: pass\n Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))\n\n**Programmer\'s note:** Variables defined in the class definition are\nclass variables; they are shared by instances. Instance variables can\nbe set in a method with ``self.name = value``. Both class and\ninstance variables are accessible through the notation\n"``self.name``", and an instance variable hides a class variable with\nthe same name when accessed in this way. Class variables can be used\nas defaults for instance variables, but using mutable values there can\nlead to unexpected results. Descriptors can be used to create\ninstance variables with different implementation details.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 3129** - Class Decorators\n\nClass definitions, like function definitions, may be wrapped by one or\nmore *decorator* expressions. The evaluation rules for the decorator\nexpressions are the same as for functions. The result must be a class\nobject, which is then bound to the class name.\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] The exception is propagated to the invocation stack only if there\n is no ``finally`` clause that negates the exception.\n\n[2] Currently, control "flows off the end" except in the case of an\n exception or the execution of a ``return``, ``continue``, or\n ``break`` statement.\n\n[3] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function\n body is transformed into the function\'s ``__doc__`` attribute and\n therefore the function\'s *docstring*.\n\n[4] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class\n body is transformed into the namespace\'s ``__doc__`` item and\n therefore the class\'s *docstring*.\n',
'context-managers': '\nWith Statement Context Managers\n*******************************\n\nA *context manager* is an object that defines the runtime context to\nbe established when executing a ``with`` statement. The context\nmanager handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime\ncontext for the execution of the block of code. Context managers are\nnormally invoked using the ``with`` statement (described in section\n*The with statement*), but can also be used by directly invoking their\nmethods.\n\nTypical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various\nkinds of global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened\nfiles, etc.\n\nFor more information on context managers, see *Context Manager Types*.\n\nobject.__enter__(self)\n\n Enter the runtime context related to this object. The ``with``\n statement will bind this method\'s return value to the target(s)\n specified in the ``as`` clause of the statement, if any.\n\nobject.__exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)\n\n Exit the runtime context related to this object. The parameters\n describe the exception that caused the context to be exited. If the\n context was exited without an exception, all three arguments will\n be ``None``.\n\n If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the\n exception (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should\n return a true value. Otherwise, the exception will be processed\n normally upon exit from this method.\n\n Note that ``__exit__()`` methods should not reraise the passed-in\n exception; this is the caller\'s responsibility.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 0343** - The "with" statement\n The specification, background, and examples for the Python\n ``with`` statement.\n',
'continue': '\nThe ``continue`` statement\n**************************\n\n continue_stmt ::= "continue"\n\n``continue`` may only occur syntactically nested in a ``for`` or\n``while`` loop, but not nested in a function or class definition or\n``finally`` clause within that loop. It continues with the next cycle\nof the nearest enclosing loop.\n\nWhen ``continue`` passes control out of a ``try`` statement with a\n``finally`` clause, that ``finally`` clause is executed before really\nstarting the next loop cycle.\n',
'conversions': '\nArithmetic conversions\n**********************\n\nWhen a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase\n"the numeric arguments are converted to a common type," this means\nthat the operator implementation for built-in types works that way:\n\n* If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to\n complex;\n\n* otherwise, if either argument is a floating point number, the other\n is converted to floating point;\n\n* otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.\n\nSome additional rules apply for certain operators (e.g., a string left\nargument to the \'%\' operator). Extensions must define their own\nconversion behavior.\n',
'customization': '\nBasic customization\n*******************\n\nobject.__new__(cls[, ...])\n\n Called to create a new instance of class *cls*. ``__new__()`` is a\n static method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such)\n that takes the class of which an instance was requested as its\n first argument. The remaining arguments are those passed to the\n object constructor expression (the call to the class). The return\n value of ``__new__()`` should be the new object instance (usually\n an instance of *cls*).\n\n Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by\n invoking the superclass\'s ``__new__()`` method using\n ``super(currentclass, cls).__new__(cls[, ...])`` with appropriate\n arguments and then modifying the newly-created instance as\n necessary before returning it.\n\n If ``__new__()`` returns an instance of *cls*, then the new\n instance\'s ``__init__()`` method will be invoked like\n ``__init__(self[, ...])``, where *self* is the new instance and the\n remaining arguments are the same as were passed to ``__new__()``.\n\n If ``__new__()`` does not return an instance of *cls*, then the new\n instance\'s ``__init__()`` method will not be invoked.\n\n ``__new__()`` is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable\n types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation. It\n is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in order to\n customize class creation.\n\nobject.__init__(self[, ...])\n\n Called when the instance is created. The arguments are those\n passed to the class constructor expression. If a base class has an\n ``__init__()`` method, the derived class\'s ``__init__()`` method,\n if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper initialization of\n the base class part of the instance; for example:\n ``BaseClass.__init__(self, [args...])``. As a special constraint\n on constructors, no value may be returned; doing so will cause a\n ``TypeError`` to be raised at runtime.\n\nobject.__del__(self)\n\n Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also\n called a destructor. If a base class has a ``__del__()`` method,\n the derived class\'s ``__del__()`` method, if any, must explicitly\n call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class part of the\n instance. Note that it is possible (though not recommended!) for\n the ``__del__()`` method to postpone destruction of the instance by\n creating a new reference to it. It may then be called at a later\n time when this new reference is deleted. It is not guaranteed that\n ``__del__()`` methods are called for objects that still exist when\n the interpreter exits.\n\n Note: ``del x`` doesn\'t directly call ``x.__del__()`` --- the former\n decrements the reference count for ``x`` by one, and the latter\n is only called when ``x``\'s reference count reaches zero. Some\n common situations that may prevent the reference count of an\n object from going to zero include: circular references between\n objects (e.g., a doubly-linked list or a tree data structure with\n parent and child pointers); a reference to the object on the\n stack frame of a function that caught an exception (the traceback\n stored in ``sys.exc_info()[2]`` keeps the stack frame alive); or\n a reference to the object on the stack frame that raised an\n unhandled exception in interactive mode (the traceback stored in\n ``sys.last_traceback`` keeps the stack frame alive). The first\n situation can only be remedied by explicitly breaking the cycles;\n the latter two situations can be resolved by storing ``None`` in\n ``sys.last_traceback``. Circular references which are garbage are\n detected when the option cycle detector is enabled (it\'s on by\n default), but can only be cleaned up if there are no Python-\n level ``__del__()`` methods involved. Refer to the documentation\n for the ``gc`` module for more information about how\n ``__del__()`` methods are handled by the cycle detector,\n particularly the description of the ``garbage`` value.\n\n Warning: Due to the precarious circumstances under which ``__del__()``\n methods are invoked, exceptions that occur during their execution\n are ignored, and a warning is printed to ``sys.stderr`` instead.\n Also, when ``__del__()`` is invoked in response to a module being\n deleted (e.g., when execution of the program is done), other\n globals referenced by the ``__del__()`` method may already have\n been deleted or in the process of being torn down (e.g. the\n import machinery shutting down). For this reason, ``__del__()``\n methods should do the absolute minimum needed to maintain\n external invariants. Starting with version 1.5, Python\n guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single\n underscore are deleted from their module before other globals are\n deleted; if no other references to such globals exist, this may\n help in assuring that imported modules are still available at the\n time when the ``__del__()`` method is called.\n\nobject.__repr__(self)\n\n Called by the ``repr()`` built-in function to compute the\n "official" string representation of an object. If at all possible,\n this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used\n to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate\n environment). If this is not possible, a string of the form\n ``<...some useful description...>`` should be returned. The return\n value must be a string object. If a class defines ``__repr__()``\n but not ``__str__()``, then ``__repr__()`` is also used when an\n "informal" string representation of instances of that class is\n required.\n\n This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the\n representation is information-rich and unambiguous.\n\nobject.__str__(self)\n\n Called by the ``str()`` built-in function and by the ``print()``\n function to compute the "informal" string representation of an\n object. This differs from ``__repr__()`` in that it does not have\n to be a valid Python expression: a more convenient or concise\n representation may be used instead. The return value must be a\n string object.\n\nobject.__format__(self, format_spec)\n\n Called by the ``format()`` built-in function (and by extension, the\n ``format()`` method of class ``str``) to produce a "formatted"\n string representation of an object. The ``format_spec`` argument is\n a string that contains a description of the formatting options\n desired. The interpretation of the ``format_spec`` argument is up\n to the type implementing ``__format__()``, however most classes\n will either delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or\n use a similar formatting option syntax.\n\n See *Format Specification Mini-Language* for a description of the\n standard formatting syntax.\n\n The return value must be a string object.\n\nobject.__lt__(self, other)\nobject.__le__(self, other)\nobject.__eq__(self, other)\nobject.__ne__(self, other)\nobject.__gt__(self, other)\nobject.__ge__(self, other)\n\n These are the so-called "rich comparison" methods. The\n correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as\n follows: ``x<y`` calls ``x.__lt__(y)``, ``x<=y`` calls\n ``x.__le__(y)``, ``x==y`` calls ``x.__eq__(y)``, ``x!=y`` calls\n ``x.__ne__(y)``, ``x>y`` calls ``x.__gt__(y)``, and ``x>=y`` calls\n ``x.__ge__(y)``.\n\n A rich comparison method may return the singleton\n ``NotImplemented`` if it does not implement the operation for a\n given pair of arguments. By convention, ``False`` and ``True`` are\n returned for a successful comparison. However, these methods can\n return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a\n Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ``if`` statement),\n Python will call ``bool()`` on the value to determine if the result\n is true or false.\n\n There are no implied relationships among the comparison operators.\n The truth of ``x==y`` does not imply that ``x!=y`` is false.\n Accordingly, when defining ``__eq__()``, one should also define\n ``__ne__()`` so that the operators will behave as expected. See\n the paragraph on ``__hash__()`` for some important notes on\n creating *hashable* objects which support custom comparison\n operations and are usable as dictionary keys.\n\n There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used\n when the left argument does not support the operation but the right\n argument does); rather, ``__lt__()`` and ``__gt__()`` are each\n other\'s reflection, ``__le__()`` and ``__ge__()`` are each other\'s\n reflection, and ``__eq__()`` and ``__ne__()`` are their own\n reflection.\n\n Arguments to rich comparison methods are never coerced.\n\n To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root\n operation, see the Total Ordering recipe in the ASPN cookbook.\n\nobject.__hash__(self)\n\n Called by built-in function ``hash()`` and for operations on\n members of hashed collections including ``set``, ``frozenset``, and\n ``dict``. ``__hash__()`` should return an integer. The only\n required property is that objects which compare equal have the same\n hash value; it is advised to somehow mix together (e.g. using\n exclusive or) the hash values for the components of the object that\n also play a part in comparison of objects.\n\n If a class does not define an ``__eq__()`` method it should not\n define a ``__hash__()`` operation either; if it defines\n ``__eq__()`` but not ``__hash__()``, its instances will not be\n usable as items in hashable collections. If a class defines\n mutable objects and implements an ``__eq__()`` method, it should\n not implement ``__hash__()``, since the implementation of hashable\n collections requires that a key\'s hash value is immutable (if the\n object\'s hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash bucket).\n\n User-defined classes have ``__eq__()`` and ``__hash__()`` methods\n by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with\n themselves) and ``x.__hash__()`` returns ``id(x)``.\n\n Classes which inherit a ``__hash__()`` method from a parent class\n but change the meaning of ``__eq__()`` such that the hash value\n returned is no longer appropriate (e.g. by switching to a value-\n based concept of equality instead of the default identity based\n equality) can explicitly flag themselves as being unhashable by\n setting ``__hash__ = None`` in the class definition. Doing so means\n that not only will instances of the class raise an appropriate\n ``TypeError`` when a program attempts to retrieve their hash value,\n but they will also be correctly identified as unhashable when\n checking ``isinstance(obj, collections.Hashable)`` (unlike classes\n which define their own ``__hash__()`` to explicitly raise\n ``TypeError``).\n\n If a class that overrides ``__eq__()`` needs to retain the\n implementation of ``__hash__()`` from a parent class, the\n interpreter must be told this explicitly by setting ``__hash__ =\n <ParentClass>.__hash__``. Otherwise the inheritance of\n ``__hash__()`` will be blocked, just as if ``__hash__`` had been\n explicitly set to ``None``.\n\nobject.__bool__(self)\n\n Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation\n ``bool()``; should return ``False`` or ``True``, or their integer\n equivalents ``0`` or ``1``. When this method is not defined,\n ``__len__()`` is called, if it is defined, and the object is\n considered true if its result is nonzero. If a class defines\n neither ``__len__()`` nor ``__bool__()``, all its instances are\n considered true.\n',
'debugger': '\n``pdb`` --- The Python Debugger\n*******************************\n\nThe module ``pdb`` defines an interactive source code debugger for\nPython programs. It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and\nsingle stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames,\nsource code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the\ncontext of any stack frame. It also supports post-mortem debugging\nand can be called under program control.\n\nThe debugger is extensible --- it is actually defined as the class\n``Pdb``. This is currently undocumented but easily understood by\nreading the source. The extension interface uses the modules ``bdb``\n(undocumented) and ``cmd``.\n\nThe debugger\'s prompt is ``(Pdb)``. Typical usage to run a program\nunder control of the debugger is:\n\n >>> import pdb\n >>> import mymodule\n >>> pdb.run(\'mymodule.test()\')\n > <string>(0)?()\n (Pdb) continue\n > <string>(1)?()\n (Pdb) continue\n NameError: \'spam\'\n > <string>(1)?()\n (Pdb)\n\n``pdb.py`` can also be invoked as a script to debug other scripts.\nFor example:\n\n python -m pdb myscript.py\n\nWhen invoked as a script, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem\ndebugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally. After post-\nmortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will\nrestart the program. Automatic restarting preserves pdb\'s state (such\nas breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the\ndebugger upon program\'s exit.\n\nThe typical usage to break into the debugger from a running program is\nto insert\n\n import pdb; pdb.set_trace()\n\nat the location you want to break into the debugger. You can then\nstep through the code following this statement, and continue running\nwithout debugger using the ``c`` command.\n\nThe typical usage to inspect a crashed program is:\n\n >>> import pdb\n >>> import mymodule\n >>> mymodule.test()\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?\n File "./mymodule.py", line 4, in test\n test2()\n File "./mymodule.py", line 3, in test2\n print(spam)\n NameError: spam\n >>> pdb.pm()\n > ./mymodule.py(3)test2()\n -> print(spam)\n (Pdb)\n\nThe module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger\nin a slightly different way:\n\npdb.run(statement[, globals[, locals]])\n\n Execute the *statement* (given as a string) under debugger control.\n The debugger prompt appears before any code is executed; you can\n set breakpoints and type ``continue``, or you can step through the\n statement using ``step`` or ``next`` (all these commands are\n explained below). The optional *globals* and *locals* arguments\n specify the environment in which the code is executed; by default\n the dictionary of the module ``__main__`` is used. (See the\n explanation of the built-in ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` functions.)\n\npdb.runeval(expression[, globals[, locals]])\n\n Evaluate the *expression* (given as a string) under debugger\n control. When ``runeval()`` returns, it returns the value of the\n expression. Otherwise this function is similar to ``run()``.\n\npdb.runcall(function[, argument, ...])\n\n Call the *function* (a function or method object, not a string)\n with the given arguments. When ``runcall()`` returns, it returns\n whatever the function call returned. The debugger prompt appears\n as soon as the function is entered.\n\npdb.set_trace()\n\n Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame. This is useful to\n hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the\n code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g. when an assertion\n fails).\n\npdb.post_mortem([traceback])\n\n Enter post-mortem debugging of the given *traceback* object. If no\n *traceback* is given, it uses the one of the exception that is\n currently being handled (an exception must be being handled if the\n default is to be used).\n\npdb.pm()\n\n Enter post-mortem debugging of the traceback found in\n ``sys.last_traceback``.\n\nThe ``run_*`` functions and ``set_trace()`` are aliases for\ninstantiating the ``Pdb`` class and calling the method of the same\nname. If you want to access further features, you have to do this\nyourself:\n\nclass class pdb.Pdb(completekey=\'tab\', stdin=None, stdout=None, skip=None)\n\n ``Pdb`` is the debugger class.\n\n The *completekey*, *stdin* and *stdout* arguments are passed to the\n underlying ``cmd.Cmd`` class; see the description there.\n\n The *skip* argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style\n module name patterns. The debugger will not step into frames that\n originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. [1]\n\n Example call to enable tracing with *skip*:\n\n import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=[\'django.*\']).set_trace()\n\n New in version 3.1: The *skip* argument.\n\n run(statement[, globals[, locals]])\n runeval(expression[, globals[, locals]])\n runcall(function[, argument, ...])\n set_trace()\n\n See the documentation for the functions explained above.\n',
'del': '\nThe ``del`` statement\n*********************\n\n del_stmt ::= "del" target_list\n\nDeletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is\ndefined. Rather that spelling it out in full details, here are some\nhints.\n\nDeletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left\nto right.\n\nDeletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or\nglobal namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a ``global``\nstatement in the same code block. If the name is unbound, a\n``NameError`` exception will be raised.\n\nIt is illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs\nas a free variable in a nested block.\n\nDeletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed\nto the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general\nequivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even\nthis is determined by the sliced object).\n',
'dict': '\nDictionary displays\n*******************\n\nA dictionary display is a possibly empty series of key/datum pairs\nenclosed in curly braces:\n\n dict_display ::= "{" [key_datum_list | dict_comprehension] "}"\n key_datum_list ::= key_datum ("," key_datum)* [","]\n key_datum ::= expression ":" expression\n dict_comprehension ::= expression ":" expression comp_for\n\nA dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.\n\nIf a comma-separated sequence of key/datum pairs is given, they are\nevaluated from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary:\neach key object is used as a key into the dictionary to store the\ncorresponding datum. This means that you can specify the same key\nmultiple times in the key/datum list, and the final dictionary\'s value\nfor that key will be the last one given.\n\nA dict comprehension, in contrast to list and set comprehensions,\nneeds two expressions separated with a colon followed by the usual\n"for" and "if" clauses. When the comprehension is run, the resulting\nkey and value elements are inserted in the new dictionary in the order\nthey are produced.\n\nRestrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in\nsection *The standard type hierarchy*. (To summarize, the key type\nshould be *hashable*, which excludes all mutable objects.) Clashes\nbetween duplicate keys are not detected; the last datum (textually\nrightmost in the display) stored for a given key value prevails.\n',
'dynamic-features': '\nInteraction with dynamic features\n*********************************\n\nThere are several cases where Python statements are illegal when used\nin conjunction with nested scopes that contain free variables.\n\nIf a variable is referenced in an enclosing scope, it is illegal to\ndelete the name. An error will be reported at compile time.\n\nIf the wild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is used in a\nfunction and the function contains or is a nested block with free\nvariables, the compiler will raise a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nThe ``eval()`` and ``exec()`` functions do not have access to the full\nenvironment for resolving names. Names may be resolved in the local\nand global namespaces of the caller. Free variables are not resolved\nin the nearest enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace. [1]\nThe ``exec()`` and ``eval()`` functions have optional arguments to\noverride the global and local namespace. If only one namespace is\nspecified, it is used for both.\n',
'else': '\nThe ``if`` statement\n********************\n\nThe ``if`` statement is used for conditional execution:\n\n if_stmt ::= "if" expression ":" suite\n ( "elif" expression ":" suite )*\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nIt selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one\nby one until one is found to be true (see section *Boolean operations*\nfor the definition of true and false); then that suite is executed\n(and no other part of the ``if`` statement is executed or evaluated).\nIf all expressions are false, the suite of the ``else`` clause, if\npresent, is executed.\n',
'exceptions': '\nExceptions\n**********\n\nExceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control\nof a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional\nconditions. An exception is *raised* at the point where the error is\ndetected; it may be *handled* by the surrounding code block or by any\ncode block that directly or indirectly invoked the code block where\nthe error occurred.\n\nThe Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time\nerror (such as division by zero). A Python program can also\nexplicitly raise an exception with the ``raise`` statement. Exception\nhandlers are specified with the ``try`` ... ``except`` statement. The\n``finally`` clause of such a statement can be used to specify cleanup\ncode which does not handle the exception, but is executed whether an\nexception occurred or not in the preceding code.\n\nPython uses the "termination" model of error handling: an exception\nhandler can find out what happened and continue execution at an outer\nlevel, but it cannot repair the cause of the error and retry the\nfailing operation (except by re-entering the offending piece of code\nfrom the top).\n\nWhen an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates\nexecution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. In\neither case, it prints a stack backtrace, except when the exception is\n``SystemExit``.\n\nExceptions are identified by class instances. The ``except`` clause\nis selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference\nthe class of the instance or a base class thereof. The instance can\nbe received by the handler and can carry additional information about\nthe exceptional condition.\n\nNote: Exception messages are not part of the Python API. Their contents\n may change from one version of Python to the next without warning\n and should not be relied on by code which will run under multiple\n versions of the interpreter.\n\nSee also the description of the ``try`` statement in section *The try\nstatement* and ``raise`` statement in section *The raise statement*.\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these\n operations is not available at the time the module is compiled.\n',
'execmodel': '\nExecution model\n***************\n\n\nNaming and binding\n==================\n\n*Names* refer to objects. Names are introduced by name binding\noperations. Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to\nthe *binding* of that name established in the innermost function block\ncontaining the use.\n\nA *block* is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a\nunit. The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class\ndefinition. Each command typed interactively is a block. A script\nfile (a file given as standard input to the interpreter or specified\non the interpreter command line the first argument) is a code block.\nA script command (a command specified on the interpreter command line\nwith the \'**-c**\' option) is a code block. The string argument passed\nto the built-in functions ``eval()`` and ``exec()`` is a code block.\n\nA code block is executed in an *execution frame*. A frame contains\nsome administrative information (used for debugging) and determines\nwhere and how execution continues after the code block\'s execution has\ncompleted.\n\nA *scope* defines the visibility of a name within a block. If a local\nvariable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block. If the\ndefinition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks\ncontained within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces\na different binding for the name. The scope of names defined in a\nclass block is limited to the class block; it does not extend to the\ncode blocks of methods -- this includes comprehensions and generator\nexpressions since they are implemented using a function scope. This\nmeans that the following will fail:\n\n class A:\n a = 42\n b = list(a + i for i in range(10))\n\nWhen a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest\nenclosing scope. The set of all such scopes visible to a code block\nis called the block\'s *environment*.\n\nIf a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block,\nunless declared as ``nonlocal``. If a name is bound at the module\nlevel, it is a global variable. (The variables of the module code\nblock are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block\nbut not defined there, it is a *free variable*.\n\nWhen a name is not found at all, a ``NameError`` exception is raised.\nIf the name refers to a local variable that has not been bound, a\n``UnboundLocalError`` exception is raised. ``UnboundLocalError`` is a\nsubclass of ``NameError``.\n\nThe following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,\n``import`` statements, class and function definitions (these bind the\nclass or function name in the defining block), and targets that are\nidentifiers if occurring in an assignment, ``for`` loop header, or\nafter ``as`` in a ``with`` statement or :keyword.`except` clause. The\n``import`` statement of the form ``from ... import *`` binds all names\ndefined in the imported module, except those beginning with an\nunderscore. This form may only be used at the module level.\n\nA target occurring in a ``del`` statement is also considered bound for\nthis purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name). It\nis illegal to unbind a name that is referenced by an enclosing scope;\nthe compiler will report a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nEach assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a\nclass or function definition or at the module level (the top-level\ncode block).\n\nIf a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all\nuses of the name within the block are treated as references to the\ncurrent block. This can lead to errors when a name is used within a\nblock before it is bound. This rule is subtle. Python lacks\ndeclarations and allows name binding operations to occur anywhere\nwithin a code block. The local variables of a code block can be\ndetermined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding\noperations.\n\nIf the ``global`` statement occurs within a block, all uses of the\nname specified in the statement refer to the binding of that name in\nthe top-level namespace. Names are resolved in the top-level\nnamespace by searching the global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the\nmodule containing the code block, and the builtin namespace, the\nnamespace of the module ``builtins``. The global namespace is\nsearched first. If the name is not found there, the builtin namespace\nis searched. The global statement must precede all uses of the name.\n\nThe built-in namespace associated with the execution of a code block\nis actually found by looking up the name ``__builtins__`` in its\nglobal namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the\nlatter case the module\'s dictionary is used). By default, when in the\n``__main__`` module, ``__builtins__`` is the built-in module\n``builtins``; when in any other module, ``__builtins__`` is an alias\nfor the dictionary of the ``builtins`` module itself.\n``__builtins__`` can be set to a user-created dictionary to create a\nweak form of restricted execution.\n\nNote: Users should not touch ``__builtins__``; it is strictly an\n implementation detail. Users wanting to override values in the\n built-in namespace should ``import`` the ``builtins`` module and\n modify its attributes appropriately.\n\nThe namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a\nmodule is imported. The main module for a script is always called\n``__main__``.\n\nThe global statement has the same scope as a name binding operation in\nthe same block. If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable\ncontains a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.\n\nA class definition is an executable statement that may use and define\nnames. These references follow the normal rules for name resolution.\nThe namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary\nof the class. Names defined at the class scope are not visible in\nmethods.\n\n\nInteraction with dynamic features\n---------------------------------\n\nThere are several cases where Python statements are illegal when used\nin conjunction with nested scopes that contain free variables.\n\nIf a variable is referenced in an enclosing scope, it is illegal to\ndelete the name. An error will be reported at compile time.\n\nIf the wild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is used in a\nfunction and the function contains or is a nested block with free\nvariables, the compiler will raise a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nThe ``eval()`` and ``exec()`` functions do not have access to the full\nenvironment for resolving names. Names may be resolved in the local\nand global namespaces of the caller. Free variables are not resolved\nin the nearest enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace. [1]\nThe ``exec()`` and ``eval()`` functions have optional arguments to\noverride the global and local namespace. If only one namespace is\nspecified, it is used for both.\n\n\nExceptions\n==========\n\nExceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control\nof a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional\nconditions. An exception is *raised* at the point where the error is\ndetected; it may be *handled* by the surrounding code block or by any\ncode block that directly or indirectly invoked the code block where\nthe error occurred.\n\nThe Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time\nerror (such as division by zero). A Python program can also\nexplicitly raise an exception with the ``raise`` statement. Exception\nhandlers are specified with the ``try`` ... ``except`` statement. The\n``finally`` clause of such a statement can be used to specify cleanup\ncode which does not handle the exception, but is executed whether an\nexception occurred or not in the preceding code.\n\nPython uses the "termination" model of error handling: an exception\nhandler can find out what happened and continue execution at an outer\nlevel, but it cannot repair the cause of the error and retry the\nfailing operation (except by re-entering the offending piece of code\nfrom the top).\n\nWhen an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates\nexecution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. In\neither case, it prints a stack backtrace, except when the exception is\n``SystemExit``.\n\nExceptions are identified by class instances. The ``except`` clause\nis selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference\nthe class of the instance or a base class thereof. The instance can\nbe received by the handler and can carry additional information about\nthe exceptional condition.\n\nNote: Exception messages are not part of the Python API. Their contents\n may change from one version of Python to the next without warning\n and should not be relied on by code which will run under multiple\n versions of the interpreter.\n\nSee also the description of the ``try`` statement in section *The try\nstatement* and ``raise`` statement in section *The raise statement*.\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these\n operations is not available at the time the module is compiled.\n',
'exprlists': '\nExpression lists\n****************\n\n expression_list ::= expression ( "," expression )* [","]\n\nAn expression list containing at least one comma yields a tuple. The\nlength of the tuple is the number of expressions in the list. The\nexpressions are evaluated from left to right.\n\nThe trailing comma is required only to create a single tuple (a.k.a. a\n*singleton*); it is optional in all other cases. A single expression\nwithout a trailing comma doesn\'t create a tuple, but rather yields the\nvalue of that expression. (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair\nof parentheses: ``()``.)\n',
'floating': '\nFloating point literals\n***********************\n\nFloating point literals are described by the following lexical\ndefinitions:\n\n floatnumber ::= pointfloat | exponentfloat\n pointfloat ::= [intpart] fraction | intpart "."\n exponentfloat ::= (intpart | pointfloat) exponent\n intpart ::= digit+\n fraction ::= "." digit+\n exponent ::= ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] digit+\n\nNote that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using\nradix 10. For example, ``077e010`` is legal, and denotes the same\nnumber as ``77e10``. The allowed range of floating point literals is\nimplementation-dependent. Some examples of floating point literals:\n\n 3.14 10. .001 1e100 3.14e-10 0e0\n\nNote that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like ``-1``\nis actually an expression composed of the unary operator ``-`` and the\nliteral ``1``.\n',
'for': '\nThe ``for`` statement\n*********************\n\nThe ``for`` statement is used to iterate over the elements of a\nsequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:\n\n for_stmt ::= "for" target_list "in" expression_list ":" suite\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nThe expression list is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable\nobject. An iterator is created for the result of the\n``expression_list``. The suite is then executed once for each item\nprovided by the iterator, in the order of ascending indices. Each\nitem in turn is assigned to the target list using the standard rules\nfor assignments (see *Assignment statements*), and then the suite is\nexecuted. When the items are exhausted (which is immediately when the\nsequence is empty or an iterator raises a ``StopIteration``\nexception), the suite in the ``else`` clause, if present, is executed,\nand the loop terminates.\n\nA ``break`` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop\nwithout executing the ``else`` clause\'s suite. A ``continue``\nstatement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and\ncontinues with the next item, or with the ``else`` clause if there was\nno next item.\n\nThe suite may assign to the variable(s) in the target list; this does\nnot affect the next item assigned to it.\n\nNames in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished,\nbut if the sequence is empty, it will not have been assigned to at all\nby the loop. Hint: the built-in function ``range()`` returns an\niterator of integers suitable to emulate the effect of Pascal\'s ``for\ni := a to b do``; e.g., ``list(range(3))`` returns the list ``[0, 1,\n2]``.\n\nNote: There is a subtlety when the sequence is being modified by the loop\n (this can only occur for mutable sequences, i.e. lists). An\n internal counter is used to keep track of which item is used next,\n and this is incremented on each iteration. When this counter has\n reached the length of the sequence the loop terminates. This means\n that if the suite deletes the current (or a previous) item from the\n sequence, the next item will be skipped (since it gets the index of\n the current item which has already been treated). Likewise, if the\n suite inserts an item in the sequence before the current item, the\n current item will be treated again the next time through the loop.\n This can lead to nasty bugs that can be avoided by making a\n temporary copy using a slice of the whole sequence, e.g.,\n\n for x in a[:]:\n if x < 0: a.remove(x)\n',
'formatstrings': '\nFormat String Syntax\n********************\n\nThe ``str.format()`` method and the ``Formatter`` class share the same\nsyntax for format strings (although in the case of ``Formatter``,\nsubclasses can define their own format string syntax.)\n\nFormat strings contain "replacement fields" surrounded by curly braces\n``{}``. Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal\ntext, which is copied unchanged to the output. If you need to include\na brace character in the literal text, it can be escaped by doubling:\n``{{`` and ``}}``.\n\nThe grammar for a replacement field is as follows:\n\n replacement_field ::= "{" field_name ["!" conversion] [":" format_spec] "}"\n field_name ::= arg_name ("." attribute_name | "[" element_index "]")*\n arg_name ::= (identifier | integer)?\n attribute_name ::= identifier\n element_index ::= integer\n conversion ::= "r" | "s" | "a"\n format_spec ::= <described in the next section>\n\nIn less formal terms, the replacement field starts with a *field_name*\nthat specifies the object whose value is to be formatted and inserted\ninto the output instead of the replacement field. The *field_name* is\noptionally followed by a *conversion* field, which is preceded by an\nexclamation point ``\'!\'``, and a *format_spec*, which is preceded by a\ncolon ``\':\'``. These specify a non-default format for the replacement\nvalue.\n\nThe *field_name* itself begins with an *arg_name* that is either\neither a number or a keyword. If it\'s a number, it refers to a\npositional argument, and if it\'s a keyword, it refers to a named\nkeyword argument. If the numerical arg_names in a format string are\n0, 1, 2, ... in sequence, they can all be omitted (not just some) and\nthe numbers 0, 1, 2, ... will be automatically inserted in that order.\nThe *arg_name* can be followed by any number of index or attribute\nexpressions. An expression of the form ``\'.name\'`` selects the named\nattribute using ``getattr()``, while an expression of the form\n``\'[index]\'`` does an index lookup using ``__getitem__()``.\n\nSome simple format string examples:\n\n "First, thou shalt count to {0}" # References first positional argument\n "Bring me a {}" # Implicitly references the first positional argument\n "From {} to {}" # Same as "From {0] to {1}"\n "My quest is {name}" # References keyword argument \'name\'\n "Weight in tons {0.weight}" # \'weight\' attribute of first positional arg\n "Units destroyed: {players[0]}" # First element of keyword argument \'players\'.\n\nThe *conversion* field causes a type coercion before formatting.\nNormally, the job of formatting a value is done by the\n``__format__()`` method of the value itself. However, in some cases\nit is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string,\noverriding its own definition of formatting. By converting the value\nto a string before calling ``__format__()``, the normal formatting\nlogic is bypassed.\n\nThree conversion flags are currently supported: ``\'!s\'`` which calls\n``str()`` on the value, ``\'!r\'`` which calls ``repr()`` and ``\'!a\'``\nwhich calls ``ascii()``.\n\nSome examples:\n\n "Harold\'s a clever {0!s}" # Calls str() on the argument first\n "Bring out the holy {name!r}" # Calls repr() on the argument first\n\nThe *format_spec* field contains a specification of how the value\nshould be presented, including such details as field width, alignment,\npadding, decimal precision and so on. Each value type can define it\'s\nown "formatting mini-language" or interpretation of the *format_spec*.\n\nMost built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which\nis described in the next section.\n\nA *format_spec* field can also include nested replacement fields\nwithin it. These nested replacement fields can contain only a field\nname; conversion flags and format specifications are not allowed. The\nreplacement fields within the format_spec are substituted before the\n*format_spec* string is interpreted. This allows the formatting of a\nvalue to be dynamically specified.\n\nFor example, suppose you wanted to have a replacement field whose\nfield width is determined by another variable:\n\n "A man with two {0:{1}}".format("noses", 10)\n\nThis would first evaluate the inner replacement field, making the\nformat string effectively:\n\n "A man with two {0:10}"\n\nThen the outer replacement field would be evaluated, producing:\n\n "noses "\n\nWhich is substituted into the string, yielding:\n\n "A man with two noses "\n\n(The extra space is because we specified a field width of 10, and\nbecause left alignment is the default for strings.)\n\n\nFormat Specification Mini-Language\n==================================\n\n"Format specifications" are used within replacement fields contained\nwithin a format string to define how individual values are presented\n(see *Format String Syntax*.) They can also be passed directly to the\nbuiltin ``format()`` function. Each formattable type may define how\nthe format specification is to be interpreted.\n\nMost built-in types implement the following options for format\nspecifications, although some of the formatting options are only\nsupported by the numeric types.\n\nA general convention is that an empty format string (``""``) produces\nthe same result as if you had called ``str()`` on the value.\n\nThe general form of a *standard format specifier* is:\n\n format_spec ::= [[fill]align][sign][#][0][width][.precision][type]\n fill ::= <a character other than \'}\'>\n align ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"\n sign ::= "+" | "-" | " "\n width ::= integer\n precision ::= integer\n type ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g" | "G" | "n" | "o" | "x" | "X" | "%"\n\nThe *fill* character can be any character other than \'}\' (which\nsignifies the end of the field). The presence of a fill character is\nsignaled by the *next* character, which must be one of the alignment\noptions. If the second character of *format_spec* is not a valid\nalignment option, then it is assumed that both the fill character and\nthe alignment option are absent.\n\nThe meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:\n\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | Option | Meaning |\n +===========+============================================================+\n | ``\'<\'`` | Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available |\n | | space (This is the default.) |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'>\'`` | Forces the field to be right-aligned within the available |\n | | space. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'=\'`` | Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) |\n | | but before the digits. This is used for printing fields |\n | | in the form \'+000000120\'. This alignment option is only |\n | | valid for numeric types. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'^\'`` | Forces the field to be centered within the available |\n | | space. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n\nNote that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width\nwill always be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the\nalignment option has no meaning in this case.\n\nThe *sign* option is only valid for number types, and can be one of\nthe following:\n\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | Option | Meaning |\n +===========+============================================================+\n | ``\'+\'`` | indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as |\n | | well as negative numbers. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'-\'`` | indicates that a sign should be used only for negative |\n | | numbers (this is the default behavior). |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | space | indicates that a leading space should be used on positive |\n | | numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n\nThe ``\'#\'`` option is only valid for integers, and only for binary,\noctal, or hexadecimal output. If present, it specifies that the\noutput will be prefixed by ``\'0b\'``, ``\'0o\'``, or ``\'0x\'``,\nrespectively.\n\n*width* is a decimal integer defining the minimum field width. If not\nspecified, then the field width will be determined by the content.\n\nIf the *width* field is preceded by a zero (``\'0\'``) character, this\nenables zero-padding. This is equivalent to an *alignment* type of\n``\'=\'`` and a *fill* character of ``\'0\'``.\n\nThe *precision* is a decimal number indicating how many digits should\nbe displayed after the decimal point for a floating point value\nformatted with ``\'f\'`` and ``\'F\'``, or before and after the decimal\npoint for a floating point value formatted with ``\'g\'`` or ``\'G\'``.\nFor non-number types the field indicates the maximum field size - in\nother words, how many characters will be used from the field content.\nThe *precision* is not allowed for integer values.\n\nFinally, the *type* determines how the data should be presented.\n\nThe available integer presentation types are:\n\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | Type | Meaning |\n +===========+============================================================+\n | ``\'b\'`` | Binary format. Outputs the number in base 2. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'c\'`` | Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding |\n | | unicode character before printing. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'d\'`` | Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'o\'`` | Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'x\'`` | Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using lower- |\n | | case letters for the digits above 9. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'X\'`` | Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using upper- |\n | | case letters for the digits above 9. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'n\'`` | Number. This is the same as ``\'d\'``, except that it uses |\n | | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate |\n | | number separator characters. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | None | The same as ``\'d\'``. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n\nThe available presentation types for floating point and decimal values\nare:\n\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | Type | Meaning |\n +===========+============================================================+\n | ``\'e\'`` | Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific |\n | | notation using the letter \'e\' to indicate the exponent. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'E\'`` | Exponent notation. Same as ``\'e\'`` except it uses an upper |\n | | case \'E\' as the separator character. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'f\'`` | Fixed point. Displays the number as a fixed-point number. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'F\'`` | Fixed point. Same as ``\'f\'``, but converts ``nan`` to |\n | | ``NAN`` and ``inf`` to ``INF``. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'g\'`` | General format. This prints the number as a fixed-point |\n | | number, unless the number is too large, in which case it |\n | | switches to ``\'e\'`` exponent notation. Infinity and NaN |\n | | values are formatted as ``inf``, ``-inf`` and ``nan``, |\n | | respectively. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'G\'`` | General format. Same as ``\'g\'`` except switches to ``\'E\'`` |\n | | if the number gets to large. The representations of |\n | | infinity and NaN are uppercased, too. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'n\'`` | Number. This is the same as ``\'g\'``, except that it uses |\n | | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate |\n | | number separator characters. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | ``\'%\'`` | Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in |\n | | fixed (``\'f\'``) format, followed by a percent sign. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n | None | Similar to ``\'g\'``, except with at least one digit past |\n | | the decimal point and a default precision of 12. This is |\n | | intended to match ``str()``, except you can add the other |\n | | format modifiers. |\n +-----------+------------------------------------------------------------+\n',
'function': '\nFunction definitions\n********************\n\nA function definition defines a user-defined function object (see\nsection *The standard type hierarchy*):\n\n funcdef ::= [decorators] "def" funcname "(" [parameter_list] ")" ["->" expression] ":" suite\n decorators ::= decorator+\n decorator ::= "@" dotted_name ["(" [argument_list [","]] ")"] NEWLINE\n dotted_name ::= identifier ("." identifier)*\n parameter_list ::= (defparameter ",")*\n ( "*" [parameter] ("," defparameter)*\n [, "**" parameter]\n | "**" parameter\n | defparameter [","] )\n parameter ::= identifier [":" expression]\n defparameter ::= parameter ["=" expression]\n funcname ::= identifier\n\nA function definition is an executable statement. Its execution binds\nthe function name in the current local namespace to a function object\n(a wrapper around the executable code for the function). This\nfunction object contains a reference to the current global namespace\nas the global namespace to be used when the function is called.\n\nThe function definition does not execute the function body; this gets\nexecuted only when the function is called. [3]\n\nA function definition may be wrapped by one or more *decorator*\nexpressions. Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function is\ndefined, in the scope that contains the function definition. The\nresult must be a callable, which is invoked with the function object\nas the only argument. The returned value is bound to the function name\ninstead of the function object. Multiple decorators are applied in\nnested fashion. For example, the following code\n\n @f1(arg)\n @f2\n def func(): pass\n\nis equivalent to\n\n def func(): pass\n func = f1(arg)(f2(func))\n\nWhen one or more parameters have the form *parameter* ``=``\n*expression*, the function is said to have "default parameter values."\nFor a parameter with a default value, the corresponding argument may\nbe omitted from a call, in which case the parameter\'s default value is\nsubstituted. If a parameter has a default value, all following\nparameters up until the "``*``" must also have a default value ---\nthis is a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.\n\n**Default parameter values are evaluated when the function definition\nis executed.** This means that the expression is evaluated once, when\nthe function is defined, and that that same "pre-computed" value is\nused for each call. This is especially important to understand when a\ndefault parameter is a mutable object, such as a list or a dictionary:\nif the function modifies the object (e.g. by appending an item to a\nlist), the default value is in effect modified. This is generally not\nwhat was intended. A way around this is to use ``None`` as the\ndefault, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function, e.g.:\n\n def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):\n if penguin is None:\n penguin = []\n penguin.append("property of the zoo")\n return penguin\n\nFunction call semantics are described in more detail in section\n*Calls*. A function call always assigns values to all parameters\nmentioned in the parameter list, either from position arguments, from\nkeyword arguments, or from default values. If the form\n"``*identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving\nany excess positional parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple. If\nthe form "``**identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a new\ndictionary receiving any excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new\nempty dictionary. Parameters after "``*``" or "``*identifier``" are\nkeyword-only parameters and may only be passed used keyword arguments.\n\nParameters may have annotations of the form "``: expression``"\nfollowing the parameter name. Any parameter may have an annotation\neven those of the form ``*identifier`` or ``**identifier``. Functions\nmay have "return" annotation of the form "``-> expression``" after the\nparameter list. These annotations can be any valid Python expression\nand are evaluated when the function definition is executed.\nAnnotations may be evaluated in a different order than they appear in\nthe source code. The presence of annotations does not change the\nsemantics of a function. The annotation values are available as\nvalues of a dictionary keyed by the parameters\' names in the\n``__annotations__`` attribute of the function object.\n\nIt is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound\nto a name), for immediate use in expressions. This uses lambda forms,\ndescribed in section *Lambdas*. Note that the lambda form is merely a\nshorthand for a simplified function definition; a function defined in\na "``def``" statement can be passed around or assigned to another name\njust like a function defined by a lambda form. The "``def``" form is\nactually more powerful since it allows the execution of multiple\nstatements and annotations.\n\n**Programmer\'s note:** Functions are first-class objects. A "``def``"\nform executed inside a function definition defines a local function\nthat can be returned or passed around. Free variables used in the\nnested function can access the local variables of the function\ncontaining the def. See section *Naming and binding* for details.\n',
'global': '\nThe ``global`` statement\n************************\n\n global_stmt ::= "global" identifier ("," identifier)*\n\nThe ``global`` statement is a declaration which holds for the entire\ncurrent code block. It means that the listed identifiers are to be\ninterpreted as globals. It would be impossible to assign to a global\nvariable without ``global``, although free variables may refer to\nglobals without being declared global.\n\nNames listed in a ``global`` statement must not be used in the same\ncode block textually preceding that ``global`` statement.\n\nNames listed in a ``global`` statement must not be defined as formal\nparameters or in a ``for`` loop control target, ``class`` definition,\nfunction definition, or ``import`` statement.\n\n(The current implementation does not enforce the latter two\nrestrictions, but programs should not abuse this freedom, as future\nimplementations may enforce them or silently change the meaning of the\nprogram.)\n\n**Programmer\'s note:** the ``global`` is a directive to the parser.\nIt applies only to code parsed at the same time as the ``global``\nstatement. In particular, a ``global`` statement contained in a string\nor code object supplied to the builtin ``exec()`` function does not\naffect the code block *containing* the function call, and code\ncontained in such a string is unaffected by ``global`` statements in\nthe code containing the function call. The same applies to the\n``eval()`` and ``compile()`` functions.\n',
'id-classes': '\nReserved classes of identifiers\n*******************************\n\nCertain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special\nmeanings. These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and\ntrailing underscore characters:\n\n``_*``\n Not imported by ``from module import *``. The special identifier\n ``_`` is used in the interactive interpreter to store the result of\n the last evaluation; it is stored in the ``builtins`` module. When\n not in interactive mode, ``_`` has no special meaning and is not\n defined. See section *The import statement*.\n\n Note: The name ``_`` is often used in conjunction with\n internationalization; refer to the documentation for the\n ``gettext`` module for more information on this convention.\n\n``__*__``\n System-defined names. These names are defined by the interpreter\n and its implementation (including the standard library);\n applications should not expect to define additional names using\n this convention. The set of names of this class defined by Python\n may be extended in future versions. See section *Special method\n names*.\n\n``__*``\n Class-private names. Names in this category, when used within the\n context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form\n to help avoid name clashes between "private" attributes of base and\n derived classes. See section *Identifiers (Names)*.\n',
'identifiers': '\nIdentifiers and keywords\n************************\n\nIdentifiers (also referred to as *names*) are described by the\nfollowing lexical definitions.\n\nThe syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard\nannex UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also\n**PEP 3131** for further details.\n\nWithin the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for\nidentifiers are the same as in Python 2.x: the uppercase and lowercase\nletters ``A`` through ``Z``, the underscore ``_`` and, except for the\nfirst character, the digits ``0`` through ``9``.\n\nPython 3.0 introduces additional characters from outside the ASCII\nrange (see **PEP 3131**). For these characters, the classification\nuses the version of the Unicode Character Database as included in the\n``unicodedata`` module.\n\nIdentifiers are unlimited in length. Case is significant.\n\n identifier ::= id_start id_continue*\n id_start ::= <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>\n id_continue ::= <all characters in id_start, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>\n\nThe Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:\n\n* *Lu* - uppercase letters\n\n* *Ll* - lowercase letters\n\n* *Lt* - titlecase letters\n\n* *Lm* - modifier letters\n\n* *Lo* - other letters\n\n* *Nl* - letter numbers\n\n* *Mn* - nonspacing marks\n\n* *Mc* - spacing combining marks\n\n* *Nd* - decimal numbers\n\n* *Pc* - connector punctuations\n\nAll identifiers are converted into the normal form NFC while parsing;\ncomparison of identifiers is based on NFC.\n\nA non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for\nUnicode 4.1 can be found at http://www.dcl.hpi.uni-\npotsdam.de/home/loewis/table-3131.html.\n\n\nKeywords\n========\n\nThe following identifiers are used as reserved words, or *keywords* of\nthe language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers. They must\nbe spelled exactly as written here:\n\n False class finally is return\n None continue for lambda try\n True def from nonlocal while\n and del global not with\n as elif if or yield\n assert else import pass\n break except in raise\n\n\nReserved classes of identifiers\n===============================\n\nCertain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special\nmeanings. These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and\ntrailing underscore characters:\n\n``_*``\n Not imported by ``from module import *``. The special identifier\n ``_`` is used in the interactive interpreter to store the result of\n the last evaluation; it is stored in the ``builtins`` module. When\n not in interactive mode, ``_`` has no special meaning and is not\n defined. See section *The import statement*.\n\n Note: The name ``_`` is often used in conjunction with\n internationalization; refer to the documentation for the\n ``gettext`` module for more information on this convention.\n\n``__*__``\n System-defined names. These names are defined by the interpreter\n and its implementation (including the standard library);\n applications should not expect to define additional names using\n this convention. The set of names of this class defined by Python\n may be extended in future versions. See section *Special method\n names*.\n\n``__*``\n Class-private names. Names in this category, when used within the\n context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form\n to help avoid name clashes between "private" attributes of base and\n derived classes. See section *Identifiers (Names)*.\n',
'if': '\nThe ``if`` statement\n********************\n\nThe ``if`` statement is used for conditional execution:\n\n if_stmt ::= "if" expression ":" suite\n ( "elif" expression ":" suite )*\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nIt selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one\nby one until one is found to be true (see section *Boolean operations*\nfor the definition of true and false); then that suite is executed\n(and no other part of the ``if`` statement is executed or evaluated).\nIf all expressions are false, the suite of the ``else`` clause, if\npresent, is executed.\n',
'imaginary': '\nImaginary literals\n******************\n\nImaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:\n\n imagnumber ::= (floatnumber | intpart) ("j" | "J")\n\nAn imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.\nComplex numbers are represented as a pair of floating point numbers\nand have the same restrictions on their range. To create a complex\nnumber with a nonzero real part, add a floating point number to it,\ne.g., ``(3+4j)``. Some examples of imaginary literals:\n\n 3.14j 10.j 10j .001j 1e100j 3.14e-10j\n',
'import': '\nThe ``import`` statement\n************************\n\n import_stmt ::= "import" module ["as" name] ( "," module ["as" name] )*\n | "from" relative_module "import" identifier ["as" name]\n ( "," identifier ["as" name] )*\n | "from" relative_module "import" "(" identifier ["as" name]\n ( "," identifier ["as" name] )* [","] ")"\n | "from" module "import" "*"\n module ::= (identifier ".")* identifier\n relative_module ::= "."* module | "."+\n name ::= identifier\n\nImport statements are executed in two steps: (1) find a module, and\ninitialize it if necessary; (2) define a name or names in the local\nnamespace (of the scope where the ``import`` statement occurs). The\nstatement comes in two forms differing on whether it uses the ``from``\nkeyword. The first form (without ``from``) repeats these steps for\neach identifier in the list. The form with ``from`` performs step (1)\nonce, and then performs step (2) repeatedly. For a reference\nimplementation of step (1), see the ``importlib`` module.\n\nTo understand how step (1) occurs, one must first understand how\nPython handles hierarchical naming of modules. To help organize\nmodules and provide a hierarchy in naming, Python has a concept of\npackages. A package can contain other packages and modules while\nmodules cannot contain other modules or packages. From a file system\nperspective, packages are directories and modules are files. The\noriginal specification for packages is still available to read,\nalthough minor details have changed since the writing of that\ndocument.\n\nOnce the name of the module is known (unless otherwise specified, the\nterm "module" will refer to both packages and modules), searching for\nthe module or package can begin. The first place checked is\n``sys.modules``, the cache of all modules that have been imported\npreviously. If the module is found there then it is used in step (2)\nof import.\n\nIf the module is not found in the cache, then ``sys.meta_path`` is\nsearched (the specification for ``sys.meta_path`` can be found in\n**PEP 302**). The object is a list of *finder* objects which are\nqueried in order as to whether they know how to load the module by\ncalling their ``find_module()`` method with the name of the module. If\nthe module happens to be contained within a package (as denoted by the\nexistence of a dot in the name), then a second argument to\n``find_module()`` is given as the value of the ``__path__`` attribute\nfrom the parent package (everything up to the last dot in the name of\nthe module being imported). If a finder can find the module it returns\na *loader* (discussed later) or returns ``None``.\n\nIf none of the finders on ``sys.meta_path`` are able to find the\nmodule then some implicitly defined finders are queried.\nImplementations of Python vary in what implicit meta path finders are\ndefined. The one they all do define, though, is one that handles\n``sys.path_hooks``, ``sys.path_importer_cache``, and ``sys.path``.\n\nThe implicit finder searches for the requested module in the "paths"\nspecified in one of two places ("paths" do not have to be file system\npaths). If the module being imported is supposed to be contained\nwithin a package then the second argument passed to ``find_module()``,\n``__path__`` on the parent package, is used as the source of paths. If\nthe module is not contained in a package then ``sys.path`` is used as\nthe source of paths.\n\nOnce the source of paths is chosen it is iterated over to find a\nfinder that can handle that path. The dict at\n``sys.path_importer_cache`` caches finders for paths and is checked\nfor a finder. If the path does not have a finder cached then\n``sys.path_hooks`` is searched by calling each object in the list with\na single argument of the path, returning a finder or raises\n``ImportError``. If a finder is returned then it is cached in\n``sys.path_importer_cache`` and then used for that path entry. If no\nfinder can be found but the path exists then a value of ``None`` is\nstored in ``sys.path_importer_cache`` to signify that an implicit,\nfile-based finder that handles modules stored as individual files\nshould be used for that path. If the path does not exist then a finder\nwhich always returns ``None`` is placed in the cache for the path.\n\nIf no finder can find the module then ``ImportError`` is raised.\nOtherwise some finder returned a loader whose ``load_module()`` method\nis called with the name of the module to load (see **PEP 302** for the\noriginal definition of loaders). A loader has several responsibilities\nto perform on a module it loads. First, if the module already exists\nin ``sys.modules`` (a possibility if the loader is called outside of\nthe import machinery) then it is to use that module for initialization\nand not a new module. But if the module does not exist in\n``sys.modules`` then it is to be added to that dict before\ninitialization begins. If an error occurs during loading of the module\nand it was added to ``sys.modules`` it is to be removed from the dict.\nIf an error occurs but the module was already in ``sys.modules`` it is\nleft in the dict.\n\nThe loader must set several attributes on the module. ``__name__`` is\nto be set to the name of the module. ``__file__`` is to be the "path"\nto the file unless the module is built-in (and thus listed in\n``sys.builtin_module_names``) in which case the attribute is not set.\nIf what is being imported is a package then ``__path__`` is to be set\nto a list of paths to be searched when looking for modules and\npackages contained within the package being imported. ``__package__``\nis optional but should be set to the name of package that contains the\nmodule or package (the empty string is used for module not contained\nin a package). ``__loader__`` is also optional but should be set to\nthe loader object that is loading the module.\n\nIf an error occurs during loading then the loader raises\n``ImportError`` if some other exception is not already being\npropagated. Otherwise the loader returns the module that was loaded\nand initialized.\n\nWhen step (1) finishes without raising an exception, step (2) can\nbegin.\n\nThe first form of ``import`` statement binds the module name in the\nlocal namespace to the module object, and then goes on to import the\nnext identifier, if any. If the module name is followed by ``as``,\nthe name following ``as`` is used as the local name for the module.\n\nThe ``from`` form does not bind the module name: it goes through the\nlist of identifiers, looks each one of them up in the module found in\nstep (1), and binds the name in the local namespace to the object thus\nfound. As with the first form of ``import``, an alternate local name\ncan be supplied by specifying "``as`` localname". If a name is not\nfound, ``ImportError`` is raised. If the list of identifiers is\nreplaced by a star (``\'*\'``), all public names defined in the module\nare bound in the local namespace of the ``import`` statement..\n\nThe *public names* defined by a module are determined by checking the\nmodule\'s namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it\nmust be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by\nthat module. The names given in ``__all__`` are all considered public\nand are required to exist. If ``__all__`` is not defined, the set of\npublic names includes all names found in the module\'s namespace which\ndo not begin with an underscore character (``\'_\'``). ``__all__``\nshould contain the entire public API. It is intended to avoid\naccidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as\nlibrary modules which were imported and used within the module).\n\nThe ``from`` form with ``*`` may only occur in a module scope. The\nwild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is only allowed at the\nmodule level. Attempting to use it in class for function definitions\nwill raise a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nWhen specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the\nabsolute name of the module. When a module or package is contained\nwithin another package it is possible to make a relative import within\nthe same top package without having to mention the package name. By\nusing leading dots in the specified module or package after ``from``\nyou can specify how high to traverse up the current package hierarchy\nwithout specifying exact names. One leading dot means the current\npackage where the module making the import exists. Two dots means up\none package level. Three dots is up two levels, etc. So if you execute\n``from . import mod`` from a module in the ``pkg`` package then you\nwill end up importing ``pkg.mod``. If you execute ``from ..subpkg2\nimprt mod`` from within ``pkg.subpkg1`` you will import\n``pkg.subpkg2.mod``. The specification for relative imports is\ncontained within **PEP 328**.\n\n``importlib.import_module()`` is provided to support applications that\ndetermine which modules need to be loaded dynamically.\n\n\nFuture statements\n=================\n\nA *future statement* is a directive to the compiler that a particular\nmodule should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be\navailable in a specified future release of Python. The future\nstatement is intended to ease migration to future versions of Python\nthat introduce incompatible changes to the language. It allows use of\nthe new features on a per-module basis before the release in which the\nfeature becomes standard.\n\n future_statement ::= "from" "__future__" "import" feature ["as" name]\n ("," feature ["as" name])*\n | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" feature ["as" name]\n ("," feature ["as" name])* [","] ")"\n feature ::= identifier\n name ::= identifier\n\nA future statement must appear near the top of the module. The only\nlines that can appear before a future statement are:\n\n* the module docstring (if any),\n\n* comments,\n\n* blank lines, and\n\n* other future statements.\n\nThe features recognized by Python 3.0 are ``absolute_import``,\n``division``, ``generators``, ``unicode_literals``,\n``print_function``, ``nested_scopes`` and ``with_statement``. They\nare all redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for\nbackwards compatibility.\n\nA future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile\ntime: Changes to the semantics of core constructs are often\nimplemented by generating different code. It may even be the case\nthat a new feature introduces new incompatible syntax (such as a new\nreserved word), in which case the compiler may need to parse the\nmodule differently. Such decisions cannot be pushed off until\nruntime.\n\nFor any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have\nbeen defined, and raises a compile-time error if a future statement\ncontains a feature not known to it.\n\nThe direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement:\nthere is a standard module ``__future__``, described later, and it\nwill be imported in the usual way at the time the future statement is\nexecuted.\n\nThe interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature\nenabled by the future statement.\n\nNote that there is nothing special about the statement:\n\n import __future__ [as name]\n\nThat is not a future statement; it\'s an ordinary import statement with\nno special semantics or syntax restrictions.\n\nCode compiled by calls to the builtin functions ``exec()`` and\n``compile()`` that occur in a module ``M`` containing a future\nstatement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated\nwith the future statement. This can be controlled by optional\narguments to ``compile()`` --- see the documentation of that function\nfor details.\n\nA future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will\ntake effect for the rest of the interpreter session. If an\ninterpreter is started with the *-i* option, is passed a script name\nto execute, and the script includes a future statement, it will be in\neffect in the interactive session started after the script is\nexecuted.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 236** - Back to the __future__\n The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.\n',
'in': '\nComparisons\n***********\n\nUnlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority,\nwhich is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise\noperation. Also unlike C, expressions like ``a < b < c`` have the\ninterpretation that is conventional in mathematics:\n\n comparison ::= or_expr ( comp_operator or_expr )*\n comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="\n | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"\n\nComparisons yield boolean values: ``True`` or ``False``.\n\nComparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ``x < y <= z`` is\nequivalent to ``x < y and y <= z``, except that ``y`` is evaluated\nonly once (but in both cases ``z`` is not evaluated at all when ``x <\ny`` is found to be false).\n\nFormally, if *a*, *b*, *c*, ..., *y*, *z* are expressions and *op1*,\n*op2*, ..., *opN* are comparison operators, then ``a op1 b op2 c ... y\nopN z`` is equivalent to ``a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z``,\nexcept that each expression is evaluated at most once.\n\nNote that ``a op1 b op2 c`` doesn\'t imply any kind of comparison\nbetween *a* and *c*, so that, e.g., ``x < y > z`` is perfectly legal\n(though perhaps not pretty).\n\nThe operators ``<``, ``>``, ``==``, ``>=``, ``<=``, and ``!=`` compare\nthe values of two objects. The objects need not have the same type.\nIf both are numbers, they are converted to a common type. Otherwise,\nthe ``==`` and ``!=`` operators *always* consider objects of different\ntypes to be unequal, while the ``<``, ``>``, ``>=`` and ``<=``\noperators raise a ``TypeError`` when comparing objects of different\ntypes that do not implement these operators for the given pair of\ntypes. You can control comparison behavior of objects of non-builtin\ntypes by defining rich comparison methods like ``__gt__()``, described\nin section *Basic customization*.\n\nComparison of objects of the same type depends on the type:\n\n* Numbers are compared arithmetically.\n\n* The values ``float(\'NaN\')`` and ``Decimal(\'NaN\')`` are special. The\n are identical to themselves, ``x is x`` but are not equal to\n themselves, ``x != x``. Additionally, comparing any value to a\n not-a-number value will return ``False``. For example, both ``3 <\n float(\'NaN\')`` and ``float(\'NaN\') < 3`` will return ``False``.\n\n* Bytes objects are compared lexicographically using the numeric\n values of their elements.\n\n* Strings are compared lexicographically using the numeric equivalents\n (the result of the built-in function ``ord()``) of their characters.\n [3] String and bytes object can\'t be compared!\n\n* Tuples and lists are compared lexicographically using comparison of\n corresponding elements. This means that to compare equal, each\n element must compare equal and the two sequences must be of the same\n type and have the same length.\n\n If not equal, the sequences are ordered the same as their first\n differing elements. For example, ``[1,2,x] <= [1,2,y]`` has the\n same value as ``x <= y``. If the corresponding element does not\n exist, the shorter sequence is ordered first (for example, ``[1,2] <\n [1,2,3]``).\n\n* Mappings (dictionaries) compare equal if and only if their sorted\n ``(key, value)`` lists compare equal. [4] Outcomes other than\n equality are resolved consistently, but are not otherwise defined.\n [5]\n\n* Sets and frozensets define comparison operators to mean subset and\n superset tests. Those relations do not define total orderings (the\n two sets ``{1,2}`` and {2,3} are not equal, nor subsets of one\n another, nor supersets of one another). Accordingly, sets are not\n appropriate arguments for functions which depend on total ordering.\n For example, ``min()``, ``max()``, and ``sorted()`` produce\n undefined results given a list of sets as inputs.\n\n* Most other objects of builtin types compare unequal unless they are\n the same object; the choice whether one object is considered smaller\n or larger than another one is made arbitrarily but consistently\n within one execution of a program.\n\nComparison of objects of the differing types depends on whether either\nof the types provide explicit support for the comparison. Most\nnumeric types can be compared with one another, but comparisons of\n``float`` and ``Decimal`` are not supported to avoid the inevitable\nconfusion arising from representation issues such as ``float(\'1.1\')``\nbeing inexactly represented and therefore not exactly equal to\n``Decimal(\'1.1\')`` which is. When cross-type comparison is not\nsupported, the comparison method returns ``NotImplemented``. This can\ncreate the illusion of non-transitivity between supported cross-type\ncomparisons and unsupported comparisons. For example, ``Decimal(2) ==\n2`` and *2 == float(2)`* but ``Decimal(2) != float(2)``.\n\nThe operators ``in`` and ``not in`` test for membership. ``x in s``\nevaluates to true if *x* is a member of *s*, and false otherwise. ``x\nnot in s`` returns the negation of ``x in s``. All built-in sequences\nand set types support this as well as dictionary, for which ``in``\ntests whether a the dictionary has a given key. For container types\nsuch as list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the\nexpression ``x in y`` is equivalent to ``any(x is e or x == e for val\ne in y)``.\n\nFor the string and bytes types, ``x in y`` is true if and only if *x*\nis a substring of *y*. An equivalent test is ``y.find(x) != -1``.\nEmpty strings are always considered to be a substring of any other\nstring, so ``"" in "abc"`` will return ``True``.\n\nFor user-defined classes which define the ``__contains__()`` method,\n``x in y`` is true if and only if ``y.__contains__(x)`` is true.\n\nFor user-defined classes which do not define ``__contains__()`` and do\ndefine ``__getitem__()``, ``x in y`` is true if and only if there is a\nnon-negative integer index *i* such that ``x == y[i]``, and all lower\ninteger indices do not raise ``IndexError`` exception. (If any other\nexception is raised, it is as if ``in`` raised that exception).\n\nThe operator ``not in`` is defined to have the inverse true value of\n``in``.\n\nThe operators ``is`` and ``is not`` test for object identity: ``x is\ny`` is true if and only if *x* and *y* are the same object. ``x is\nnot y`` yields the inverse truth value. [6]\n',
'integers': '\nInteger literals\n****************\n\nInteger literals are described by the following lexical definitions:\n\n integer ::= decimalinteger | octinteger | hexinteger | bininteger\n decimalinteger ::= nonzerodigit digit* | "0"+\n nonzerodigit ::= "1"..."9"\n digit ::= "0"..."9"\n octinteger ::= "0" ("o" | "O") octdigit+\n hexinteger ::= "0" ("x" | "X") hexdigit+\n bininteger ::= "0" ("b" | "B") bindigit+\n octdigit ::= "0"..."7"\n hexdigit ::= digit | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"\n bindigit ::= "0" | "1"\n\nThere is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what\ncan be stored in available memory.\n\nNote that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed.\nThis is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python\nused before version 3.0.\n\nSome examples of integer literals:\n\n 7 2147483647 0o177 0b100110111\n 3 79228162514264337593543950336 0o377 0x100000000\n 79228162514264337593543950336 0xdeadbeef\n',
'lambda': '\nLambdas\n*******\n\n lambda_form ::= "lambda" [parameter_list]: expression\n lambda_form_nocond ::= "lambda" [parameter_list]: expression_nocond\n\nLambda forms (lambda expressions) have the same syntactic position as\nexpressions. They are a shorthand to create anonymous functions; the\nexpression ``lambda arguments: expression`` yields a function object.\nThe unnamed object behaves like a function object defined with\n\n def <lambda>(arguments):\n return expression\n\nSee section *Function definitions* for the syntax of parameter lists.\nNote that functions created with lambda forms cannot contain\nstatements or annotations.\n',
'lists': '\nList displays\n*************\n\nA list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in\nsquare brackets:\n\n list_display ::= "[" [expression_list | comprehension] "]"\n\nA list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified\nby either a list of expressions or a comprehension. When a comma-\nseparated list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated\nfrom left to right and placed into the list object in that order.\nWhen a comprehension is supplied, the list is constructed from the\nelements resulting from the comprehension.\n',
'naming': "\nNaming and binding\n******************\n\n*Names* refer to objects. Names are introduced by name binding\noperations. Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to\nthe *binding* of that name established in the innermost function block\ncontaining the use.\n\nA *block* is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a\nunit. The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class\ndefinition. Each command typed interactively is a block. A script\nfile (a file given as standard input to the interpreter or specified\non the interpreter command line the first argument) is a code block.\nA script command (a command specified on the interpreter command line\nwith the '**-c**' option) is a code block. The string argument passed\nto the built-in functions ``eval()`` and ``exec()`` is a code block.\n\nA code block is executed in an *execution frame*. A frame contains\nsome administrative information (used for debugging) and determines\nwhere and how execution continues after the code block's execution has\ncompleted.\n\nA *scope* defines the visibility of a name within a block. If a local\nvariable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block. If the\ndefinition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks\ncontained within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces\na different binding for the name. The scope of names defined in a\nclass block is limited to the class block; it does not extend to the\ncode blocks of methods -- this includes comprehensions and generator\nexpressions since they are implemented using a function scope. This\nmeans that the following will fail:\n\n class A:\n a = 42\n b = list(a + i for i in range(10))\n\nWhen a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest\nenclosing scope. The set of all such scopes visible to a code block\nis called the block's *environment*.\n\nIf a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block,\nunless declared as ``nonlocal``. If a name is bound at the module\nlevel, it is a global variable. (The variables of the module code\nblock are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block\nbut not defined there, it is a *free variable*.\n\nWhen a name is not found at all, a ``NameError`` exception is raised.\nIf the name refers to a local variable that has not been bound, a\n``UnboundLocalError`` exception is raised. ``UnboundLocalError`` is a\nsubclass of ``NameError``.\n\nThe following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,\n``import`` statements, class and function definitions (these bind the\nclass or function name in the defining block), and targets that are\nidentifiers if occurring in an assignment, ``for`` loop header, or\nafter ``as`` in a ``with`` statement or :keyword.`except` clause. The\n``import`` statement of the form ``from ... import *`` binds all names\ndefined in the imported module, except those beginning with an\nunderscore. This form may only be used at the module level.\n\nA target occurring in a ``del`` statement is also considered bound for\nthis purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name). It\nis illegal to unbind a name that is referenced by an enclosing scope;\nthe compiler will report a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nEach assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a\nclass or function definition or at the module level (the top-level\ncode block).\n\nIf a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all\nuses of the name within the block are treated as references to the\ncurrent block. This can lead to errors when a name is used within a\nblock before it is bound. This rule is subtle. Python lacks\ndeclarations and allows name binding operations to occur anywhere\nwithin a code block. The local variables of a code block can be\ndetermined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding\noperations.\n\nIf the ``global`` statement occurs within a block, all uses of the\nname specified in the statement refer to the binding of that name in\nthe top-level namespace. Names are resolved in the top-level\nnamespace by searching the global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the\nmodule containing the code block, and the builtin namespace, the\nnamespace of the module ``builtins``. The global namespace is\nsearched first. If the name is not found there, the builtin namespace\nis searched. The global statement must precede all uses of the name.\n\nThe built-in namespace associated with the execution of a code block\nis actually found by looking up the name ``__builtins__`` in its\nglobal namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the\nlatter case the module's dictionary is used). By default, when in the\n``__main__`` module, ``__builtins__`` is the built-in module\n``builtins``; when in any other module, ``__builtins__`` is an alias\nfor the dictionary of the ``builtins`` module itself.\n``__builtins__`` can be set to a user-created dictionary to create a\nweak form of restricted execution.\n\nNote: Users should not touch ``__builtins__``; it is strictly an\n implementation detail. Users wanting to override values in the\n built-in namespace should ``import`` the ``builtins`` module and\n modify its attributes appropriately.\n\nThe namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a\nmodule is imported. The main module for a script is always called\n``__main__``.\n\nThe global statement has the same scope as a name binding operation in\nthe same block. If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable\ncontains a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.\n\nA class definition is an executable statement that may use and define\nnames. These references follow the normal rules for name resolution.\nThe namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary\nof the class. Names defined at the class scope are not visible in\nmethods.\n\n\nInteraction with dynamic features\n=================================\n\nThere are several cases where Python statements are illegal when used\nin conjunction with nested scopes that contain free variables.\n\nIf a variable is referenced in an enclosing scope, it is illegal to\ndelete the name. An error will be reported at compile time.\n\nIf the wild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is used in a\nfunction and the function contains or is a nested block with free\nvariables, the compiler will raise a ``SyntaxError``.\n\nThe ``eval()`` and ``exec()`` functions do not have access to the full\nenvironment for resolving names. Names may be resolved in the local\nand global namespaces of the caller. Free variables are not resolved\nin the nearest enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace. [1]\nThe ``exec()`` and ``eval()`` functions have optional arguments to\noverride the global and local namespace. If only one namespace is\nspecified, it is used for both.\n",
'numbers': "\nNumeric literals\n****************\n\nThere are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating point\nnumbers, and imaginary numbers. There are no complex literals\n(complex numbers can be formed by adding a real number and an\nimaginary number).\n\nNote that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like ``-1``\nis actually an expression composed of the unary operator '``-``' and\nthe literal ``1``.\n",
'numeric-types': "\nEmulating numeric types\n***********************\n\nThe following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects.\nMethods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the\nparticular kind of number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for\nnon-integral numbers) should be left undefined.\n\nobject.__add__(self, other)\nobject.__sub__(self, other)\nobject.__mul__(self, other)\nobject.__truediv__(self, other)\nobject.__floordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__mod__(self, other)\nobject.__divmod__(self, other)\nobject.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])\nobject.__lshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rshift__(self, other)\nobject.__and__(self, other)\nobject.__xor__(self, other)\nobject.__or__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic\n operations (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``,\n ``divmod()``, ``pow()``, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``,\n ``|``). For instance, to evaluate the expression ``x + y``, where\n *x* is an instance of a class that has an ``__add__()`` method,\n ``x.__add__(y)`` is called. The ``__divmod__()`` method should be\n the equivalent to using ``__floordiv__()`` and ``__mod__()``; it\n should not be related to ``__truediv__()``. Note that\n ``__pow__()`` should be defined to accept an optional third\n argument if the ternary version of the built-in ``pow()`` function\n is to be supported.\n\n If one of those methods does not support the operation with the\n supplied arguments, it should return ``NotImplemented``.\n\nobject.__radd__(self, other)\nobject.__rsub__(self, other)\nobject.__rmul__(self, other)\nobject.__rtruediv__(self, other)\nobject.__rfloordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__rmod__(self, other)\nobject.__rdivmod__(self, other)\nobject.__rpow__(self, other)\nobject.__rlshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rrshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rand__(self, other)\nobject.__rxor__(self, other)\nobject.__ror__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic\n operations (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``,\n ``divmod()``, ``pow()``, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``,\n ``|``) with reflected (swapped) operands. These functions are only\n called if the left operand does not support the corresponding\n operation and the operands are of different types. [3] For\n instance, to evaluate the expression ``x - y``, where *y* is an\n instance of a class that has an ``__rsub__()`` method,\n ``y.__rsub__(x)`` is called if ``x.__sub__(y)`` returns\n *NotImplemented*.\n\n Note that ternary ``pow()`` will not try calling ``__rpow__()``\n (the coercion rules would become too complicated).\n\n Note: If the right operand's type is a subclass of the left operand's\n type and that subclass provides the reflected method for the\n operation, this method will be called before the left operand's\n non-reflected method. This behavior allows subclasses to\n override their ancestors' operations.\n\nobject.__iadd__(self, other)\nobject.__isub__(self, other)\nobject.__imul__(self, other)\nobject.__itruediv__(self, other)\nobject.__ifloordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__imod__(self, other)\nobject.__ipow__(self, other[, modulo])\nobject.__ilshift__(self, other)\nobject.__irshift__(self, other)\nobject.__iand__(self, other)\nobject.__ixor__(self, other)\nobject.__ior__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic\n assignments (``+=``, ``-=``, ``*=``, ``/=``, ``//=``, ``%=``,\n ``**=``, ``<<=``, ``>>=``, ``&=``, ``^=``, ``|=``). These methods\n should attempt to do the operation in-place (modifying *self*) and\n return the result (which could be, but does not have to be,\n *self*). If a specific method is not defined, the augmented\n assignment falls back to the normal methods. For instance, to\n execute the statement ``x += y``, where *x* is an instance of a\n class that has an ``__iadd__()`` method, ``x.__iadd__(y)`` is\n called. If *x* is an instance of a class that does not define a\n ``__iadd__()`` method, ``x.__add__(y)`` and ``y.__radd__(x)`` are\n considered, as with the evaluation of ``x + y``.\n\nobject.__neg__(self)\nobject.__pos__(self)\nobject.__abs__(self)\nobject.__invert__(self)\n\n Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (``-``, ``+``,\n ``abs()`` and ``~``).\n\nobject.__complex__(self)\nobject.__int__(self)\nobject.__float__(self)\nobject.__round__(self[, n])\n\n Called to implement the built-in functions ``complex()``,\n ``int()``, ``float()`` and ``round()``. Should return a value of\n the appropriate type.\n\nobject.__index__(self)\n\n Called to implement ``operator.index()``. Also called whenever\n Python needs an integer object (such as in slicing, or in the\n built-in ``bin()``, ``hex()`` and ``oct()`` functions). Must return\n an integer.\n",
'objects': '\nObjects, values and types\n*************************\n\n*Objects* are Python\'s abstraction for data. All data in a Python\nprogram is represented by objects or by relations between objects. (In\na sense, and in conformance to Von Neumann\'s model of a "stored\nprogram computer," code is also represented by objects.)\n\nEvery object has an identity, a type and a value. An object\'s\n*identity* never changes once it has been created; you may think of it\nas the object\'s address in memory. The \'``is``\' operator compares the\nidentity of two objects; the ``id()`` function returns an integer\nrepresenting its identity (currently implemented as its address). An\nobject\'s *type* is also unchangeable. [1] An object\'s type determines\nthe operations that the object supports (e.g., "does it have a\nlength?") and also defines the possible values for objects of that\ntype. The ``type()`` function returns an object\'s type (which is an\nobject itself). The *value* of some objects can change. Objects\nwhose value can change are said to be *mutable*; objects whose value\nis unchangeable once they are created are called *immutable*. (The\nvalue of an immutable container object that contains a reference to a\nmutable object can change when the latter\'s value is changed; however\nthe container is still considered immutable, because the collection of\nobjects it contains cannot be changed. So, immutability is not\nstrictly the same as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.)\nAn object\'s mutability is determined by its type; for instance,\nnumbers, strings and tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and\nlists are mutable.\n\nObjects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become\nunreachable they may be garbage-collected. An implementation is\nallowed to postpone garbage collection or omit it altogether --- it is\na matter of implementation quality how garbage collection is\nimplemented, as long as no objects are collected that are still\nreachable. (Implementation note: CPython currently uses a reference-\ncounting scheme with (optional) delayed detection of cyclically linked\ngarbage, which collects most objects as soon as they become\nunreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage containing\ncircular references. See the documentation of the ``gc`` module for\ninformation on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage. Other\nimplementations act differently and CPython may change.)\n\nNote that the use of the implementation\'s tracing or debugging\nfacilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.\nAlso note that catching an exception with a \'``try``...``except``\'\nstatement may keep objects alive.\n\nSome objects contain references to "external" resources such as open\nfiles or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed\nwhen the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is\nnot guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to\nrelease the external resource, usually a ``close()`` method. Programs\nare strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects. The\n\'``try``...``finally``\' statement and the \'``with``\' statement provide\nconvenient ways to do this.\n\nSome objects contain references to other objects; these are called\n*containers*. Examples of containers are tuples, lists and\ndictionaries. The references are part of a container\'s value. In\nmost cases, when we talk about the value of a container, we imply the\nvalues, not the identities of the contained objects; however, when we\ntalk about the mutability of a container, only the identities of the\nimmediately contained objects are implied. So, if an immutable\ncontainer (like a tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its\nvalue changes if that mutable object is changed.\n\nTypes affect almost all aspects of object behavior. Even the\nimportance of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable\ntypes, operations that compute new values may actually return a\nreference to any existing object with the same type and value, while\nfor mutable objects this is not allowed. E.g., after ``a = 1; b =\n1``, ``a`` and ``b`` may or may not refer to the same object with the\nvalue one, depending on the implementation, but after ``c = []; d =\n[]``, ``c`` and ``d`` are guaranteed to refer to two different,\nunique, newly created empty lists. (Note that ``c = d = []`` assigns\nthe same object to both ``c`` and ``d``.)\n',
'operator-summary': '\nSummary\n*******\n\nThe following table summarizes the operator precedences in Python,\nfrom lowest precedence (least binding) to highest precedence (most\nbinding). Operators in the same box have the same precedence. Unless\nthe syntax is explicitly given, operators are binary. Operators in\nthe same box group left to right (except for comparisons, including\ntests, which all have the same precedence and chain from left to right\n--- see section *Comparisons* --- and exponentiation, which groups\nfrom right to left).\n\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| Operator | Description |\n+=================================================+=======================================+\n| ``lambda`` | Lambda expression |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``or`` | Boolean OR |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``and`` | Boolean AND |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``not`` *x* | Boolean NOT |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``in``, ``not`` ``in``, ``is``, ``is not``, | Comparisons, including membership |\n| ``<``, ``<=``, ``>``, ``>=``, ``!=``, ``==`` | tests and identity tests, |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``|`` | Bitwise OR |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``^`` | Bitwise XOR |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``&`` | Bitwise AND |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``<<``, ``>>`` | Shifts |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``+``, ``-`` | Addition and subtraction |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``*``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%`` | Multiplication, division, remainder |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``+x``, ``-x``, ``~x`` | Positive, negative, bitwise NOT |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``**`` | Exponentiation [7] |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``x[index]``, ``x[index:index]``, | Subscription, slicing, call, |\n| ``x(arguments...)``, ``x.attribute`` | attribute reference |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n| ``(expressions...)``, ``[expressions...]``, | Binding or tuple display, list |\n| ``{key:datum...}``, | display, dictionary display, |\n+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] While ``abs(x%y) < abs(y)`` is true mathematically, for floats it\n may not be true numerically due to roundoff. For example, and\n assuming a platform on which a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-\n precision number, in order that ``-1e-100 % 1e100`` have the same\n sign as ``1e100``, the computed result is ``-1e-100 + 1e100``,\n which is numerically exactly equal to ``1e100``. Function\n ``fmod()`` in the ``math`` module returns a result whose sign\n matches the sign of the first argument instead, and so returns\n ``-1e-100`` in this case. Which approach is more appropriate\n depends on the application.\n\n[2] If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it\'s\n possible for ``x//y`` to be one larger than ``(x-x%y)//y`` due to\n rounding. In such cases, Python returns the latter result, in\n order to preserve that ``divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y`` be very\n close to ``x``.\n\n[3] While comparisons between strings make sense at the byte level,\n they may be counter-intuitive to users. For example, the strings\n ``"\\u00C7"`` and ``"\\u0327\\u0043"`` compare differently, even\n though they both represent the same unicode character (LATIN\n CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA). To compare strings in a human\n recognizable way, compare using ``unicodedata.normalize()``.\n\n[4] The implementation computes this efficiently, without constructing\n lists or sorting.\n\n[5] Earlier versions of Python used lexicographic comparison of the\n sorted (key, value) lists, but this was very expensive for the\n common case of comparing for equality. An even earlier version of\n Python compared dictionaries by identity only, but this caused\n surprises because people expected to be able to test a dictionary\n for emptiness by comparing it to ``{}``.\n\n[6] Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic\n nature of descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour\n in certain uses of the ``is`` operator, like those involving\n comparisons between instance methods, or constants. Check their\n documentation for more info.\n\n[7] The power operator ``**`` binds less tightly than an arithmetic or\n bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, ``2**-1`` is\n ``0.5``.\n',
'pass': '\nThe ``pass`` statement\n**********************\n\n pass_stmt ::= "pass"\n\n``pass`` is a null operation --- when it is executed, nothing happens.\nIt is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required\nsyntactically, but no code needs to be executed, for example:\n\n def f(arg): pass # a function that does nothing (yet)\n\n class C: pass # a class with no methods (yet)\n',
'power': '\nThe power operator\n******************\n\nThe power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its\nleft; it binds less tightly than unary operators on its right. The\nsyntax is:\n\n power ::= primary ["**" u_expr]\n\nThus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the\noperators are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain\nthe evaluation order for the operands): ``-1**2`` results in ``-1``.\n\nThe power operator has the same semantics as the built-in ``pow()``\nfunction, when called with two arguments: it yields its left argument\nraised to the power of its right argument. The numeric arguments are\nfirst converted to a common type, and the result is of that type.\n\nFor int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless\nthe second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are\nconverted to float and a float result is delivered. For example,\n``10**2`` returns ``100``, but ``10**-2`` returns ``0.01``.\n\nRaising ``0.0`` to a negative power results in a\n``ZeroDivisionError``. Raising a negative number to a fractional power\nresults in a ``complex`` number. (In earlier versions it raised a\n``ValueError``.)\n',
'raise': '\nThe ``raise`` statement\n***********************\n\n raise_stmt ::= "raise" [expression ["from" expression]]\n\nIf no expressions are present, ``raise`` re-raises the last exception\nthat was active in the current scope. If no exception is active in\nthe current scope, a ``TypeError`` exception is raised indicating that\nthis is an error (if running under IDLE, a ``queue.Empty`` exception\nis raised instead).\n\nOtherwise, ``raise`` evaluates the first expression as the exception\nobject. It must be either a subclass or an instance of\n``BaseException``. If it is a class, the exception instance will be\nobtained when needed by instantiating the class with no arguments.\n\nThe *type* of the exception is the exception instance\'s class, the\n*value* is the instance itself.\n\nA traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception\nis raised and attached to it as the ``__traceback__`` attribute, which\nis writable. You can create an exception and set your own traceback in\none step using the ``with_traceback()`` exception method (which\nreturns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its\nargument), like so:\n\n raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)\n\nThe ``from`` clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the\nsecond *expression* must be another exception class or instance, which\nwill then be attached to the raised exception as the ``__cause__``\nattribute (which is writable). If the raised exception is not\nhandled, both exceptions will be printed:\n\n >>> try:\n ... print(1 / 0)\n ... except Exception as exc:\n ... raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc\n ...\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>\n ZeroDivisionError: int division or modulo by zero\n\n The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:\n\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>\n RuntimeError: Something bad happened\n\nA similar mechanism works implicitly if an exception is raised inside\nan exception handler: the previous exception is then attached as the\nnew exception\'s ``__context__`` attribute:\n\n >>> try:\n ... print(1 / 0)\n ... except:\n ... raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")\n ...\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>\n ZeroDivisionError: int division or modulo by zero\n\n During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:\n\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>\n RuntimeError: Something bad happened\n\nAdditional information on exceptions can be found in section\n*Exceptions*, and information about handling exceptions is in section\n*The try statement*.\n',
'return': '\nThe ``return`` statement\n************************\n\n return_stmt ::= "return" [expression_list]\n\n``return`` may only occur syntactically nested in a function\ndefinition, not within a nested class definition.\n\nIf an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else ``None`` is\nsubstituted.\n\n``return`` leaves the current function call with the expression list\n(or ``None``) as return value.\n\nWhen ``return`` passes control out of a ``try`` statement with a\n``finally`` clause, that ``finally`` clause is executed before really\nleaving the function.\n\nIn a generator function, the ``return`` statement is not allowed to\ninclude an **expression_list**. In that context, a bare ``return``\nindicates that the generator is done and will cause ``StopIteration``\nto be raised.\n',
'sequence-types': "\nEmulating container types\n*************************\n\nThe following methods can be defined to implement container objects.\nContainers usually are sequences (such as lists or tuples) or mappings\n(like dictionaries), but can represent other containers as well. The\nfirst set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to\nemulate a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the\nallowable keys should be the integers *k* for which ``0 <= k < N``\nwhere *N* is the length of the sequence, or slice objects, which\ndefine a range of items. It is also recommended that mappings provide\nthe methods ``keys()``, ``values()``, ``items()``, ``get()``,\n``clear()``, ``setdefault()``, ``pop()``, ``popitem()``, ``copy()``,\nand ``update()`` behaving similar to those for Python's standard\ndictionary objects. The ``collections`` module provides a\n``MutableMapping`` abstract base class to help create those methods\nfrom a base set of ``__getitem__()``, ``__setitem__()``,\n``__delitem__()``, and ``keys()``. Mutable sequences should provide\nmethods ``append()``, ``count()``, ``index()``, ``extend()``,\n``insert()``, ``pop()``, ``remove()``, ``reverse()`` and ``sort()``,\nlike Python standard list objects. Finally, sequence types should\nimplement addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning\nrepetition) by defining the methods ``__add__()``, ``__radd__()``,\n``__iadd__()``, ``__mul__()``, ``__rmul__()`` and ``__imul__()``\ndescribed below; they should not define other numerical operators. It\nis recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the\n``__contains__()`` method to allow efficient use of the ``in``\noperator; for mappings, ``in`` should search the mapping's keys; for\nsequences, it should search through the values. It is further\nrecommended that both mappings and sequences implement the\n``__iter__()`` method to allow efficient iteration through the\ncontainer; for mappings, ``__iter__()`` should be the same as\n``keys()``; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.\n\nobject.__len__(self)\n\n Called to implement the built-in function ``len()``. Should return\n the length of the object, an integer ``>=`` 0. Also, an object\n that doesn't define a ``__bool__()`` method and whose ``__len__()``\n method returns zero is considered to be false in a Boolean context.\n\nNote: Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods. A\n call like\n\n a[1:2] = b\n\n is translated to\n\n a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b\n\n and so forth. Missing slice items are always filled in with\n ``None``.\n\nobject.__getitem__(self, key)\n\n Called to implement evaluation of ``self[key]``. For sequence\n types, the accepted keys should be integers and slice objects.\n Note that the special interpretation of negative indexes (if the\n class wishes to emulate a sequence type) is up to the\n ``__getitem__()`` method. If *key* is of an inappropriate type,\n ``TypeError`` may be raised; if of a value outside the set of\n indexes for the sequence (after any special interpretation of\n negative values), ``IndexError`` should be raised. For mapping\n types, if *key* is missing (not in the container), ``KeyError``\n should be raised.\n\n Note: ``for`` loops expect that an ``IndexError`` will be raised for\n illegal indexes to allow proper detection of the end of the\n sequence.\n\nobject.__setitem__(self, key, value)\n\n Called to implement assignment to ``self[key]``. Same note as for\n ``__getitem__()``. This should only be implemented for mappings if\n the objects support changes to the values for keys, or if new keys\n can be added, or for sequences if elements can be replaced. The\n same exceptions should be raised for improper *key* values as for\n the ``__getitem__()`` method.\n\nobject.__delitem__(self, key)\n\n Called to implement deletion of ``self[key]``. Same note as for\n ``__getitem__()``. This should only be implemented for mappings if\n the objects support removal of keys, or for sequences if elements\n can be removed from the sequence. The same exceptions should be\n raised for improper *key* values as for the ``__getitem__()``\n method.\n\nobject.__iter__(self)\n\n This method is called when an iterator is required for a container.\n This method should return a new iterator object that can iterate\n over all the objects in the container. For mappings, it should\n iterate over the keys of the container, and should also be made\n available as the method ``keys()``.\n\n Iterator objects also need to implement this method; they are\n required to return themselves. For more information on iterator\n objects, see *Iterator Types*.\n\nobject.__reversed__(self)\n\n Called (if present) by the ``reversed()`` builtin to implement\n reverse iteration. It should return a new iterator object that\n iterates over all the objects in the container in reverse order.\n\n If the ``__reversed__()`` method is not provided, the\n ``reversed()`` builtin will fall back to using the sequence\n protocol (``__len__()`` and ``__getitem__()``). Objects that\n support the sequence protocol should only provide\n ``__reversed__()`` if they can provide an implementation that is\n more efficient than the one provided by ``reversed()``.\n\nThe membership test operators (``in`` and ``not in``) are normally\nimplemented as an iteration through a sequence. However, container\nobjects can supply the following special method with a more efficient\nimplementation, which also does not require the object be a sequence.\n\nobject.__contains__(self, item)\n\n Called to implement membership test operators. Should return true\n if *item* is in *self*, false otherwise. For mapping objects, this\n should consider the keys of the mapping rather than the values or\n the key-item pairs.\n",
'shifting': '\nShifting operations\n*******************\n\nThe shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic\noperations:\n\n shift_expr ::= a_expr | shift_expr ( "<<" | ">>" ) a_expr\n\nThese operators accept integers as arguments. They shift the first\nargument to the left or right by the number of bits given by the\nsecond argument.\n\nA right shift by *n* bits is defined as division by ``pow(2,n)``. A\nleft shift by *n* bits is defined as multiplication with ``pow(2,n)``.\n',
'slicings': '\nSlicings\n********\n\nA slicing selects a range of items in a sequence object (e.g., a\nstring, tuple or list). Slicings may be used as expressions or as\ntargets in assignment or ``del`` statements. The syntax for a\nslicing:\n\n slicing ::= primary "[" slice_list "]"\n slice_list ::= slice_item ("," slice_item)* [","]\n slice_item ::= expression | proper_slice\n proper_slice ::= [lower_bound] ":" [upper_bound] [ ":" [stride] ]\n lower_bound ::= expression\n upper_bound ::= expression\n stride ::= expression\n\nThere is ambiguity in the formal syntax here: anything that looks like\nan expression list also looks like a slice list, so any subscription\ncan be interpreted as a slicing. Rather than further complicating the\nsyntax, this is disambiguated by defining that in this case the\ninterpretation as a subscription takes priority over the\ninterpretation as a slicing (this is the case if the slice list\ncontains no proper slice).\n\nThe semantics for a slicing are as follows. The primary must evaluate\nto a mapping object, and it is indexed (using the same\n``__getitem__()`` method as normal subscription) with a key that is\nconstructed from the slice list, as follows. If the slice list\ncontains at least one comma, the key is a tuple containing the\nconversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the lone\nslice item is the key. The conversion of a slice item that is an\nexpression is that expression. The conversion of a proper slice is a\nslice object (see section *The standard type hierarchy*) whose\n``start``, ``stop`` and ``step`` attributes are the values of the\nexpressions given as lower bound, upper bound and stride,\nrespectively, substituting ``None`` for missing expressions.\n',
'specialattrs': "\nSpecial Attributes\n******************\n\nThe implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several\nobject types, where they are relevant. Some of these are not reported\nby the ``dir()`` built-in function.\n\nobject.__dict__\n\n A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's\n (writable) attributes.\n\ninstance.__class__\n\n The class to which a class instance belongs.\n\nclass.__bases__\n\n The tuple of base classes of a class object. If there are no base\n classes, this will be an empty tuple.\n\nclass.__name__\n\n The name of the class or type.\n\nThe following attributes are only supported by *new-style class*es.\n\nclass.__mro__\n\n This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when\n looking for base classes during method resolution.\n\nclass.mro()\n\n This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the\n method resolution order for its instances. It is called at class\n instantiation, and its result is stored in ``__mro__``.\n\nclass.__subclasses__()\n\n Each new-style class keeps a list of weak references to its\n immediate subclasses. This method returns a list of all those\n references still alive. Example:\n\n >>> int.__subclasses__()\n [<type 'bool'>]\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] Additional information on these special methods may be found in\n the Python Reference Manual (*Basic customization*).\n\n[2] As a consequence, the list ``[1, 2]`` is considered equal to\n ``[1.0, 2.0]``, and similarly for tuples.\n\n[3] They must have since the parser can't tell the type of the\n operands.\n\n[4] To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton\n tuple whose only element is the tuple to be formatted.\n\n[5] The advantage of leaving the newline on is that returning an empty\n string is then an unambiguous EOF indication. It is also possible\n (in cases where it might matter, for example, if you want to make\n an exact copy of a file while scanning its lines) to tell whether\n the last line of a file ended in a newline or not (yes this\n happens!).\n",
'specialnames': '\nSpecial method names\n********************\n\nA class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special\nsyntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by\ndefining methods with special names. This is Python\'s approach to\n*operator overloading*, allowing classes to define their own behavior\nwith respect to language operators. For instance, if a class defines\na method named ``__getitem__()``, and ``x`` is an instance of this\nclass, then ``x[i]`` is roughly equivalent to ``type(x).__getitem__(x,\ni)``. Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise\nan exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically\n``AttributeError`` or ``TypeError``).\n\nWhen implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is\nimportant that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it\nmakes sense for the object being modelled. For example, some\nsequences may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but\nextracting a slice may not make sense. (One example of this is the\n``NodeList`` interface in the W3C\'s Document Object Model.)\n\n\nBasic customization\n===================\n\nobject.__new__(cls[, ...])\n\n Called to create a new instance of class *cls*. ``__new__()`` is a\n static method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such)\n that takes the class of which an instance was requested as its\n first argument. The remaining arguments are those passed to the\n object constructor expression (the call to the class). The return\n value of ``__new__()`` should be the new object instance (usually\n an instance of *cls*).\n\n Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by\n invoking the superclass\'s ``__new__()`` method using\n ``super(currentclass, cls).__new__(cls[, ...])`` with appropriate\n arguments and then modifying the newly-created instance as\n necessary before returning it.\n\n If ``__new__()`` returns an instance of *cls*, then the new\n instance\'s ``__init__()`` method will be invoked like\n ``__init__(self[, ...])``, where *self* is the new instance and the\n remaining arguments are the same as were passed to ``__new__()``.\n\n If ``__new__()`` does not return an instance of *cls*, then the new\n instance\'s ``__init__()`` method will not be invoked.\n\n ``__new__()`` is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable\n types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation. It\n is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in order to\n customize class creation.\n\nobject.__init__(self[, ...])\n\n Called when the instance is created. The arguments are those\n passed to the class constructor expression. If a base class has an\n ``__init__()`` method, the derived class\'s ``__init__()`` method,\n if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper initialization of\n the base class part of the instance; for example:\n ``BaseClass.__init__(self, [args...])``. As a special constraint\n on constructors, no value may be returned; doing so will cause a\n ``TypeError`` to be raised at runtime.\n\nobject.__del__(self)\n\n Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also\n called a destructor. If a base class has a ``__del__()`` method,\n the derived class\'s ``__del__()`` method, if any, must explicitly\n call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class part of the\n instance. Note that it is possible (though not recommended!) for\n the ``__del__()`` method to postpone destruction of the instance by\n creating a new reference to it. It may then be called at a later\n time when this new reference is deleted. It is not guaranteed that\n ``__del__()`` methods are called for objects that still exist when\n the interpreter exits.\n\n Note: ``del x`` doesn\'t directly call ``x.__del__()`` --- the former\n decrements the reference count for ``x`` by one, and the latter\n is only called when ``x``\'s reference count reaches zero. Some\n common situations that may prevent the reference count of an\n object from going to zero include: circular references between\n objects (e.g., a doubly-linked list or a tree data structure with\n parent and child pointers); a reference to the object on the\n stack frame of a function that caught an exception (the traceback\n stored in ``sys.exc_info()[2]`` keeps the stack frame alive); or\n a reference to the object on the stack frame that raised an\n unhandled exception in interactive mode (the traceback stored in\n ``sys.last_traceback`` keeps the stack frame alive). The first\n situation can only be remedied by explicitly breaking the cycles;\n the latter two situations can be resolved by storing ``None`` in\n ``sys.last_traceback``. Circular references which are garbage are\n detected when the option cycle detector is enabled (it\'s on by\n default), but can only be cleaned up if there are no Python-\n level ``__del__()`` methods involved. Refer to the documentation\n for the ``gc`` module for more information about how\n ``__del__()`` methods are handled by the cycle detector,\n particularly the description of the ``garbage`` value.\n\n Warning: Due to the precarious circumstances under which ``__del__()``\n methods are invoked, exceptions that occur during their execution\n are ignored, and a warning is printed to ``sys.stderr`` instead.\n Also, when ``__del__()`` is invoked in response to a module being\n deleted (e.g., when execution of the program is done), other\n globals referenced by the ``__del__()`` method may already have\n been deleted or in the process of being torn down (e.g. the\n import machinery shutting down). For this reason, ``__del__()``\n methods should do the absolute minimum needed to maintain\n external invariants. Starting with version 1.5, Python\n guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single\n underscore are deleted from their module before other globals are\n deleted; if no other references to such globals exist, this may\n help in assuring that imported modules are still available at the\n time when the ``__del__()`` method is called.\n\nobject.__repr__(self)\n\n Called by the ``repr()`` built-in function to compute the\n "official" string representation of an object. If at all possible,\n this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used\n to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate\n environment). If this is not possible, a string of the form\n ``<...some useful description...>`` should be returned. The return\n value must be a string object. If a class defines ``__repr__()``\n but not ``__str__()``, then ``__repr__()`` is also used when an\n "informal" string representation of instances of that class is\n required.\n\n This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the\n representation is information-rich and unambiguous.\n\nobject.__str__(self)\n\n Called by the ``str()`` built-in function and by the ``print()``\n function to compute the "informal" string representation of an\n object. This differs from ``__repr__()`` in that it does not have\n to be a valid Python expression: a more convenient or concise\n representation may be used instead. The return value must be a\n string object.\n\nobject.__format__(self, format_spec)\n\n Called by the ``format()`` built-in function (and by extension, the\n ``format()`` method of class ``str``) to produce a "formatted"\n string representation of an object. The ``format_spec`` argument is\n a string that contains a description of the formatting options\n desired. The interpretation of the ``format_spec`` argument is up\n to the type implementing ``__format__()``, however most classes\n will either delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or\n use a similar formatting option syntax.\n\n See *Format Specification Mini-Language* for a description of the\n standard formatting syntax.\n\n The return value must be a string object.\n\nobject.__lt__(self, other)\nobject.__le__(self, other)\nobject.__eq__(self, other)\nobject.__ne__(self, other)\nobject.__gt__(self, other)\nobject.__ge__(self, other)\n\n These are the so-called "rich comparison" methods. The\n correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as\n follows: ``x<y`` calls ``x.__lt__(y)``, ``x<=y`` calls\n ``x.__le__(y)``, ``x==y`` calls ``x.__eq__(y)``, ``x!=y`` calls\n ``x.__ne__(y)``, ``x>y`` calls ``x.__gt__(y)``, and ``x>=y`` calls\n ``x.__ge__(y)``.\n\n A rich comparison method may return the singleton\n ``NotImplemented`` if it does not implement the operation for a\n given pair of arguments. By convention, ``False`` and ``True`` are\n returned for a successful comparison. However, these methods can\n return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a\n Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ``if`` statement),\n Python will call ``bool()`` on the value to determine if the result\n is true or false.\n\n There are no implied relationships among the comparison operators.\n The truth of ``x==y`` does not imply that ``x!=y`` is false.\n Accordingly, when defining ``__eq__()``, one should also define\n ``__ne__()`` so that the operators will behave as expected. See\n the paragraph on ``__hash__()`` for some important notes on\n creating *hashable* objects which support custom comparison\n operations and are usable as dictionary keys.\n\n There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used\n when the left argument does not support the operation but the right\n argument does); rather, ``__lt__()`` and ``__gt__()`` are each\n other\'s reflection, ``__le__()`` and ``__ge__()`` are each other\'s\n reflection, and ``__eq__()`` and ``__ne__()`` are their own\n reflection.\n\n Arguments to rich comparison methods are never coerced.\n\n To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root\n operation, see the Total Ordering recipe in the ASPN cookbook.\n\nobject.__hash__(self)\n\n Called by built-in function ``hash()`` and for operations on\n members of hashed collections including ``set``, ``frozenset``, and\n ``dict``. ``__hash__()`` should return an integer. The only\n required property is that objects which compare equal have the same\n hash value; it is advised to somehow mix together (e.g. using\n exclusive or) the hash values for the components of the object that\n also play a part in comparison of objects.\n\n If a class does not define an ``__eq__()`` method it should not\n define a ``__hash__()`` operation either; if it defines\n ``__eq__()`` but not ``__hash__()``, its instances will not be\n usable as items in hashable collections. If a class defines\n mutable objects and implements an ``__eq__()`` method, it should\n not implement ``__hash__()``, since the implementation of hashable\n collections requires that a key\'s hash value is immutable (if the\n object\'s hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash bucket).\n\n User-defined classes have ``__eq__()`` and ``__hash__()`` methods\n by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with\n themselves) and ``x.__hash__()`` returns ``id(x)``.\n\n Classes which inherit a ``__hash__()`` method from a parent class\n but change the meaning of ``__eq__()`` such that the hash value\n returned is no longer appropriate (e.g. by switching to a value-\n based concept of equality instead of the default identity based\n equality) can explicitly flag themselves as being unhashable by\n setting ``__hash__ = None`` in the class definition. Doing so means\n that not only will instances of the class raise an appropriate\n ``TypeError`` when a program attempts to retrieve their hash value,\n but they will also be correctly identified as unhashable when\n checking ``isinstance(obj, collections.Hashable)`` (unlike classes\n which define their own ``__hash__()`` to explicitly raise\n ``TypeError``).\n\n If a class that overrides ``__eq__()`` needs to retain the\n implementation of ``__hash__()`` from a parent class, the\n interpreter must be told this explicitly by setting ``__hash__ =\n <ParentClass>.__hash__``. Otherwise the inheritance of\n ``__hash__()`` will be blocked, just as if ``__hash__`` had been\n explicitly set to ``None``.\n\nobject.__bool__(self)\n\n Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation\n ``bool()``; should return ``False`` or ``True``, or their integer\n equivalents ``0`` or ``1``. When this method is not defined,\n ``__len__()`` is called, if it is defined, and the object is\n considered true if its result is nonzero. If a class defines\n neither ``__len__()`` nor ``__bool__()``, all its instances are\n considered true.\n\n\nCustomizing attribute access\n============================\n\nThe following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of\nattribute access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ``x.name``)\nfor class instances.\n\nobject.__getattr__(self, name)\n\n Called when an attribute lookup has not found the attribute in the\n usual places (i.e. it is not an instance attribute nor is it found\n in the class tree for ``self``). ``name`` is the attribute name.\n This method should return the (computed) attribute value or raise\n an ``AttributeError`` exception.\n\n Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,\n ``__getattr__()`` is not called. (This is an intentional asymmetry\n between ``__getattr__()`` and ``__setattr__()``.) This is done both\n for efficiency reasons and because otherwise ``__getattr__()``\n would have no way to access other attributes of the instance. Note\n that at least for instance variables, you can fake total control by\n not inserting any values in the instance attribute dictionary (but\n instead inserting them in another object). See the\n ``__getattribute__()`` method below for a way to actually get total\n control over attribute access.\n\nobject.__getattribute__(self, name)\n\n Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for\n instances of the class. If the class also defines\n ``__getattr__()``, the latter will not be called unless\n ``__getattribute__()`` either calls it explicitly or raises an\n ``AttributeError``. This method should return the (computed)\n attribute value or raise an ``AttributeError`` exception. In order\n to avoid infinite recursion in this method, its implementation\n should always call the base class method with the same name to\n access any attributes it needs, for example,\n ``object.__getattribute__(self, name)``.\n\n Note: This method may still be bypassed when looking up special methods\n as the result of implicit invocation via language syntax or\n builtin functions. See *Special method lookup*.\n\nobject.__setattr__(self, name, value)\n\n Called when an attribute assignment is attempted. This is called\n instead of the normal mechanism (i.e. store the value in the\n instance dictionary). *name* is the attribute name, *value* is the\n value to be assigned to it.\n\n If ``__setattr__()`` wants to assign to an instance attribute, it\n should call the base class method with the same name, for example,\n ``object.__setattr__(self, name, value)``.\n\nobject.__delattr__(self, name)\n\n Like ``__setattr__()`` but for attribute deletion instead of\n assignment. This should only be implemented if ``del obj.name`` is\n meaningful for the object.\n\nobject.__dir__(self)\n\n Called when ``dir()`` is called on the object. A list must be\n returned.\n\n\nImplementing Descriptors\n------------------------\n\nThe following methods only apply when an instance of the class\ncontaining the method (a so-called *descriptor* class) appears in the\nclass dictionary of another class, known as the *owner* class. In the\nexamples below, "the attribute" refers to the attribute whose name is\nthe key of the property in the owner class\' ``__dict__``.\n\nobject.__get__(self, instance, owner)\n\n Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute\n access) or of an instance of that class (instance attribute\n access). *owner* is always the owner class, while *instance* is the\n instance that the attribute was accessed through, or ``None`` when\n the attribute is accessed through the *owner*. This method should\n return the (computed) attribute value or raise an\n ``AttributeError`` exception.\n\nobject.__set__(self, instance, value)\n\n Called to set the attribute on an instance *instance* of the owner\n class to a new value, *value*.\n\nobject.__delete__(self, instance)\n\n Called to delete the attribute on an instance *instance* of the\n owner class.\n\n\nInvoking Descriptors\n--------------------\n\nIn general, a descriptor is an object attribute with "binding\nbehavior", one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods\nin the descriptor protocol: ``__get__()``, ``__set__()``, and\n``__delete__()``. If any of those methods are defined for an object,\nit is said to be a descriptor.\n\nThe default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete\nthe attribute from an object\'s dictionary. For instance, ``a.x`` has a\nlookup chain starting with ``a.__dict__[\'x\']``, then\n``type(a).__dict__[\'x\']``, and continuing through the base classes of\n``type(a)`` excluding metaclasses.\n\nHowever, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the\ndescriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and\ninvoke the descriptor method instead. Where this occurs in the\nprecedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined and\nhow they were called.\n\nThe starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, ``a.x``.\nHow the arguments are assembled depends on ``a``:\n\nDirect Call\n The simplest and least common call is when user code directly\n invokes a descriptor method: ``x.__get__(a)``.\n\nInstance Binding\n If binding to an object instance, ``a.x`` is transformed into the\n call: ``type(a).__dict__[\'x\'].__get__(a, type(a))``.\n\nClass Binding\n If binding to a class, ``A.x`` is transformed into the call:\n ``A.__dict__[\'x\'].__get__(None, A)``.\n\nSuper Binding\n If ``a`` is an instance of ``super``, then the binding ``super(B,\n obj).m()`` searches ``obj.__class__.__mro__`` for the base class\n ``A`` immediately preceding ``B`` and then invokes the descriptor\n with the call: ``A.__dict__[\'m\'].__get__(obj, A)``.\n\nFor instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends\non the which descriptor methods are defined. Normally, data\ndescriptors define both ``__get__()`` and ``__set__()``, while non-\ndata descriptors have just the ``__get__()`` method. Data descriptors\nalways override a redefinition in an instance dictionary. In\ncontrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances. [2]\n\nPython methods (including ``staticmethod()`` and ``classmethod()``)\nare implemented as non-data descriptors. Accordingly, instances can\nredefine and override methods. This allows individual instances to\nacquire behaviors that differ from other instances of the same class.\n\nThe ``property()`` function is implemented as a data descriptor.\nAccordingly, instances cannot override the behavior of a property.\n\n\n__slots__\n---------\n\nBy default, instances of classes have a dictionary for attribute\nstorage. This wastes space for objects having very few instance\nvariables. The space consumption can become acute when creating large\nnumbers of instances.\n\nThe default can be overridden by defining *__slots__* in a class\ndefinition. The *__slots__* declaration takes a sequence of instance\nvariables and reserves just enough space in each instance to hold a\nvalue for each variable. Space is saved because *__dict__* is not\ncreated for each instance.\n\nobject.__slots__\n\n This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence\n of strings with variable names used by instances. If defined in a\n class, *__slots__* reserves space for the declared variables and\n prevents the automatic creation of *__dict__* and *__weakref__* for\n each instance.\n\n\nNotes on using *__slots__*\n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\n\n* When inheriting from a class without *__slots__*, the *__dict__*\n attribute of that class will always be accessible, so a *__slots__*\n definition in the subclass is meaningless.\n\n* Without a *__dict__* variable, instances cannot be assigned new\n variables not listed in the *__slots__* definition. Attempts to\n assign to an unlisted variable name raises ``AttributeError``. If\n dynamic assignment of new variables is desired, then add\n ``\'__dict__\'`` to the sequence of strings in the *__slots__*\n declaration.\n\n* Without a *__weakref__* variable for each instance, classes defining\n *__slots__* do not support weak references to its instances. If weak\n reference support is needed, then add ``\'__weakref__\'`` to the\n sequence of strings in the *__slots__* declaration.\n\n* *__slots__* are implemented at the class level by creating\n descriptors (*Implementing Descriptors*) for each variable name. As\n a result, class attributes cannot be used to set default values for\n instance variables defined by *__slots__*; otherwise, the class\n attribute would overwrite the descriptor assignment.\n\n* If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance\n variable defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by\n retrieving its descriptor directly from the base class). This\n renders the meaning of the program undefined. In the future, a\n check may be added to prevent this.\n\n* The action of a *__slots__* declaration is limited to the class\n where it is defined. As a result, subclasses will have a *__dict__*\n unless they also define *__slots__*.\n\n* Nonempty *__slots__* does not work for classes derived from\n "variable-length" built-in types such as ``int``, ``str`` and\n ``tuple``.\n\n* Any non-string iterable may be assigned to *__slots__*. Mappings may\n also be used; however, in the future, special meaning may be\n assigned to the values corresponding to each key.\n\n* *__class__* assignment works only if both classes have the same\n *__slots__*.\n\n\nCustomizing class creation\n==========================\n\nBy default, classes are constructed using ``type()``. A class\ndefinition is read into a separate namespace and the value of class\nname is bound to the result of ``type(name, bases, dict)``.\n\nWhen the class definition is read, if a callable ``metaclass`` keyword\nargument is passed after the bases in the class definition, the\ncallable given will be called instead of ``type()``. If other keyword\narguments are passed, they will also be passed to the metaclass. This\nallows classes or functions to be written which monitor or alter the\nclass creation process:\n\n* Modifying the class dictionary prior to the class being created.\n\n* Returning an instance of another class -- essentially performing the\n role of a factory function.\n\nThese steps will have to be performed in the metaclass\'s ``__new__()``\nmethod -- ``type.__new__()`` can then be called from this method to\ncreate a class with different properties. This example adds a new\nelement to the class dictionary before creating the class:\n\n class metacls(type):\n def __new__(mcs, name, bases, dict):\n dict[\'foo\'] = \'metacls was here\'\n return type.__new__(mcs, name, bases, dict)\n\nYou can of course also override other class methods (or add new\nmethods); for example defining a custom ``__call__()`` method in the\nmetaclass allows custom behavior when the class is called, e.g. not\nalways creating a new instance.\n\nIf the metaclass has a ``__prepare__()`` attribute (usually\nimplemented as a class or static method), it is called before the\nclass body is evaluated with the name of the class and a tuple of its\nbases for arguments. It should return an object that supports the\nmapping interface that will be used to store the namespace of the\nclass. The default is a plain dictionary. This could be used, for\nexample, to keep track of the order that class attributes are declared\nin by returning an ordered dictionary.\n\nThe appropriate metaclass is determined by the following precedence\nrules:\n\n* If the ``metaclass`` keyword argument is based with the bases, it is\n used.\n\n* Otherwise, if there is at least one base class, its metaclass is\n used.\n\n* Otherwise, the default metaclass (``type``) is used.\n\nThe potential uses for metaclasses are boundless. Some ideas that have\nbeen explored including logging, interface checking, automatic\ndelegation, automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and\nautomatic resource locking/synchronization.\n\nHere is an example of a metaclass that uses an\n``collections.OrderedDict`` to remember the order that class members\nwere defined:\n\n class OrderedClass(type):\n\n @classmethod\n def __prepare__(metacls, name, bases, **kwds):\n return collections.OrderedDict()\n\n def __new__(cls, name, bases, classdict):\n result = type.__new__(cls, name, bases, dict(classdict))\n result.members = tuple(classdict)\n return result\n\n class A(metaclass=OrderedClass):\n def one(self): pass\n def two(self): pass\n def three(self): pass\n def four(self): pass\n\n >>> A.members\n (\'__module__\', \'one\', \'two\', \'three\', \'four\')\n\nWhen the class definition for *A* gets executed, the process begins\nwith calling the metaclass\'s ``__prepare__()`` method which returns an\nempty ``collections.OrderedDict``. That mapping records the methods\nand attributes of *A* as they are defined within the body of the class\nstatement. Once those definitions are executed, the ordered dictionary\nis fully populated and the metaclass\'s ``__new__()`` method gets\ninvoked. That method builds the new type and it saves the ordered\ndictionary keys in an attribute called *members*.\n\n\nEmulating callable objects\n==========================\n\nobject.__call__(self[, args...])\n\n Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method\n is defined, ``x(arg1, arg2, ...)`` is a shorthand for\n ``x.__call__(arg1, arg2, ...)``.\n\n\nEmulating container types\n=========================\n\nThe following methods can be defined to implement container objects.\nContainers usually are sequences (such as lists or tuples) or mappings\n(like dictionaries), but can represent other containers as well. The\nfirst set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to\nemulate a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the\nallowable keys should be the integers *k* for which ``0 <= k < N``\nwhere *N* is the length of the sequence, or slice objects, which\ndefine a range of items. It is also recommended that mappings provide\nthe methods ``keys()``, ``values()``, ``items()``, ``get()``,\n``clear()``, ``setdefault()``, ``pop()``, ``popitem()``, ``copy()``,\nand ``update()`` behaving similar to those for Python\'s standard\ndictionary objects. The ``collections`` module provides a\n``MutableMapping`` abstract base class to help create those methods\nfrom a base set of ``__getitem__()``, ``__setitem__()``,\n``__delitem__()``, and ``keys()``. Mutable sequences should provide\nmethods ``append()``, ``count()``, ``index()``, ``extend()``,\n``insert()``, ``pop()``, ``remove()``, ``reverse()`` and ``sort()``,\nlike Python standard list objects. Finally, sequence types should\nimplement addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning\nrepetition) by defining the methods ``__add__()``, ``__radd__()``,\n``__iadd__()``, ``__mul__()``, ``__rmul__()`` and ``__imul__()``\ndescribed below; they should not define other numerical operators. It\nis recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the\n``__contains__()`` method to allow efficient use of the ``in``\noperator; for mappings, ``in`` should search the mapping\'s keys; for\nsequences, it should search through the values. It is further\nrecommended that both mappings and sequences implement the\n``__iter__()`` method to allow efficient iteration through the\ncontainer; for mappings, ``__iter__()`` should be the same as\n``keys()``; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.\n\nobject.__len__(self)\n\n Called to implement the built-in function ``len()``. Should return\n the length of the object, an integer ``>=`` 0. Also, an object\n that doesn\'t define a ``__bool__()`` method and whose ``__len__()``\n method returns zero is considered to be false in a Boolean context.\n\nNote: Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods. A\n call like\n\n a[1:2] = b\n\n is translated to\n\n a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b\n\n and so forth. Missing slice items are always filled in with\n ``None``.\n\nobject.__getitem__(self, key)\n\n Called to implement evaluation of ``self[key]``. For sequence\n types, the accepted keys should be integers and slice objects.\n Note that the special interpretation of negative indexes (if the\n class wishes to emulate a sequence type) is up to the\n ``__getitem__()`` method. If *key* is of an inappropriate type,\n ``TypeError`` may be raised; if of a value outside the set of\n indexes for the sequence (after any special interpretation of\n negative values), ``IndexError`` should be raised. For mapping\n types, if *key* is missing (not in the container), ``KeyError``\n should be raised.\n\n Note: ``for`` loops expect that an ``IndexError`` will be raised for\n illegal indexes to allow proper detection of the end of the\n sequence.\n\nobject.__setitem__(self, key, value)\n\n Called to implement assignment to ``self[key]``. Same note as for\n ``__getitem__()``. This should only be implemented for mappings if\n the objects support changes to the values for keys, or if new keys\n can be added, or for sequences if elements can be replaced. The\n same exceptions should be raised for improper *key* values as for\n the ``__getitem__()`` method.\n\nobject.__delitem__(self, key)\n\n Called to implement deletion of ``self[key]``. Same note as for\n ``__getitem__()``. This should only be implemented for mappings if\n the objects support removal of keys, or for sequences if elements\n can be removed from the sequence. The same exceptions should be\n raised for improper *key* values as for the ``__getitem__()``\n method.\n\nobject.__iter__(self)\n\n This method is called when an iterator is required for a container.\n This method should return a new iterator object that can iterate\n over all the objects in the container. For mappings, it should\n iterate over the keys of the container, and should also be made\n available as the method ``keys()``.\n\n Iterator objects also need to implement this method; they are\n required to return themselves. For more information on iterator\n objects, see *Iterator Types*.\n\nobject.__reversed__(self)\n\n Called (if present) by the ``reversed()`` builtin to implement\n reverse iteration. It should return a new iterator object that\n iterates over all the objects in the container in reverse order.\n\n If the ``__reversed__()`` method is not provided, the\n ``reversed()`` builtin will fall back to using the sequence\n protocol (``__len__()`` and ``__getitem__()``). Objects that\n support the sequence protocol should only provide\n ``__reversed__()`` if they can provide an implementation that is\n more efficient than the one provided by ``reversed()``.\n\nThe membership test operators (``in`` and ``not in``) are normally\nimplemented as an iteration through a sequence. However, container\nobjects can supply the following special method with a more efficient\nimplementation, which also does not require the object be a sequence.\n\nobject.__contains__(self, item)\n\n Called to implement membership test operators. Should return true\n if *item* is in *self*, false otherwise. For mapping objects, this\n should consider the keys of the mapping rather than the values or\n the key-item pairs.\n\n\nEmulating numeric types\n=======================\n\nThe following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects.\nMethods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the\nparticular kind of number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for\nnon-integral numbers) should be left undefined.\n\nobject.__add__(self, other)\nobject.__sub__(self, other)\nobject.__mul__(self, other)\nobject.__truediv__(self, other)\nobject.__floordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__mod__(self, other)\nobject.__divmod__(self, other)\nobject.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])\nobject.__lshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rshift__(self, other)\nobject.__and__(self, other)\nobject.__xor__(self, other)\nobject.__or__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic\n operations (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``,\n ``divmod()``, ``pow()``, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``,\n ``|``). For instance, to evaluate the expression ``x + y``, where\n *x* is an instance of a class that has an ``__add__()`` method,\n ``x.__add__(y)`` is called. The ``__divmod__()`` method should be\n the equivalent to using ``__floordiv__()`` and ``__mod__()``; it\n should not be related to ``__truediv__()``. Note that\n ``__pow__()`` should be defined to accept an optional third\n argument if the ternary version of the built-in ``pow()`` function\n is to be supported.\n\n If one of those methods does not support the operation with the\n supplied arguments, it should return ``NotImplemented``.\n\nobject.__radd__(self, other)\nobject.__rsub__(self, other)\nobject.__rmul__(self, other)\nobject.__rtruediv__(self, other)\nobject.__rfloordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__rmod__(self, other)\nobject.__rdivmod__(self, other)\nobject.__rpow__(self, other)\nobject.__rlshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rrshift__(self, other)\nobject.__rand__(self, other)\nobject.__rxor__(self, other)\nobject.__ror__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic\n operations (``+``, ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``//``, ``%``,\n ``divmod()``, ``pow()``, ``**``, ``<<``, ``>>``, ``&``, ``^``,\n ``|``) with reflected (swapped) operands. These functions are only\n called if the left operand does not support the corresponding\n operation and the operands are of different types. [3] For\n instance, to evaluate the expression ``x - y``, where *y* is an\n instance of a class that has an ``__rsub__()`` method,\n ``y.__rsub__(x)`` is called if ``x.__sub__(y)`` returns\n *NotImplemented*.\n\n Note that ternary ``pow()`` will not try calling ``__rpow__()``\n (the coercion rules would become too complicated).\n\n Note: If the right operand\'s type is a subclass of the left operand\'s\n type and that subclass provides the reflected method for the\n operation, this method will be called before the left operand\'s\n non-reflected method. This behavior allows subclasses to\n override their ancestors\' operations.\n\nobject.__iadd__(self, other)\nobject.__isub__(self, other)\nobject.__imul__(self, other)\nobject.__itruediv__(self, other)\nobject.__ifloordiv__(self, other)\nobject.__imod__(self, other)\nobject.__ipow__(self, other[, modulo])\nobject.__ilshift__(self, other)\nobject.__irshift__(self, other)\nobject.__iand__(self, other)\nobject.__ixor__(self, other)\nobject.__ior__(self, other)\n\n These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic\n assignments (``+=``, ``-=``, ``*=``, ``/=``, ``//=``, ``%=``,\n ``**=``, ``<<=``, ``>>=``, ``&=``, ``^=``, ``|=``). These methods\n should attempt to do the operation in-place (modifying *self*) and\n return the result (which could be, but does not have to be,\n *self*). If a specific method is not defined, the augmented\n assignment falls back to the normal methods. For instance, to\n execute the statement ``x += y``, where *x* is an instance of a\n class that has an ``__iadd__()`` method, ``x.__iadd__(y)`` is\n called. If *x* is an instance of a class that does not define a\n ``__iadd__()`` method, ``x.__add__(y)`` and ``y.__radd__(x)`` are\n considered, as with the evaluation of ``x + y``.\n\nobject.__neg__(self)\nobject.__pos__(self)\nobject.__abs__(self)\nobject.__invert__(self)\n\n Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (``-``, ``+``,\n ``abs()`` and ``~``).\n\nobject.__complex__(self)\nobject.__int__(self)\nobject.__float__(self)\nobject.__round__(self[, n])\n\n Called to implement the built-in functions ``complex()``,\n ``int()``, ``float()`` and ``round()``. Should return a value of\n the appropriate type.\n\nobject.__index__(self)\n\n Called to implement ``operator.index()``. Also called whenever\n Python needs an integer object (such as in slicing, or in the\n built-in ``bin()``, ``hex()`` and ``oct()`` functions). Must return\n an integer.\n\n\nWith Statement Context Managers\n===============================\n\nA *context manager* is an object that defines the runtime context to\nbe established when executing a ``with`` statement. The context\nmanager handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime\ncontext for the execution of the block of code. Context managers are\nnormally invoked using the ``with`` statement (described in section\n*The with statement*), but can also be used by directly invoking their\nmethods.\n\nTypical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various\nkinds of global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened\nfiles, etc.\n\nFor more information on context managers, see *Context Manager Types*.\n\nobject.__enter__(self)\n\n Enter the runtime context related to this object. The ``with``\n statement will bind this method\'s return value to the target(s)\n specified in the ``as`` clause of the statement, if any.\n\nobject.__exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)\n\n Exit the runtime context related to this object. The parameters\n describe the exception that caused the context to be exited. If the\n context was exited without an exception, all three arguments will\n be ``None``.\n\n If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the\n exception (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should\n return a true value. Otherwise, the exception will be processed\n normally upon exit from this method.\n\n Note that ``__exit__()`` methods should not reraise the passed-in\n exception; this is the caller\'s responsibility.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 0343** - The "with" statement\n The specification, background, and examples for the Python\n ``with`` statement.\n\n\nSpecial method lookup\n=====================\n\nFor custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only\nguaranteed to work correctly if defined on an object\'s type, not in\nthe object\'s instance dictionary. That behaviour is the reason why\nthe following code raises an exception:\n\n >>> class C(object):\n ... pass\n ...\n >>> c = C()\n >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5\n >>> len(c)\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>\n TypeError: object of type \'C\' has no len()\n\nThe rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special\nmethods such as ``__hash__()`` and ``__repr__()`` that are implemented\nby all objects, including type objects. If the implicit lookup of\nthese methods used the conventional lookup process, they would fail\nwhen invoked on the type object itself:\n\n >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)\n True\n >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)\n Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>\n TypeError: descriptor \'__hash__\' of \'int\' object needs an argument\n\nIncorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this\nway is sometimes referred to as \'metaclass confusion\', and is avoided\nby bypassing the instance when looking up special methods:\n\n >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)\n True\n >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)\n True\n\nIn addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of\ncorrectness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses\nthe ``__getattribute__()`` method even of the object\'s metaclass:\n\n >>> class Meta(type):\n ... def __getattribute__(*args):\n ... print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")\n ... return type.__getattribute__(*args)\n ...\n >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):\n ... def __len__(self):\n ... return 10\n ... def __getattribute__(*args):\n ... print("Class getattribute invoked")\n ... return object.__getattribute__(*args)\n ...\n >>> c = C()\n >>> c.__len__() # Explicit lookup via instance\n Class getattribute invoked\n 10\n >>> type(c).__len__(c) # Explicit lookup via type\n Metaclass getattribute invoked\n 10\n >>> len(c) # Implicit lookup\n 10\n\nBypassing the ``__getattribute__()`` machinery in this fashion\nprovides significant scope for speed optimisations within the\ninterpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of\nspecial methods (the special method *must* be set on the class object\nitself in order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).\n\n-[ Footnotes ]-\n\n[1] It *is* possible in some cases to change an object\'s type, under\n certain controlled conditions. It generally isn\'t a good idea\n though, since it can lead to some very strange behaviour if it is\n handled incorrectly.\n\n[2] A descriptor can define any combination of ``__get__()``,\n ``__set__()`` and ``__delete__()``. If it does not define\n ``__get__()``, then accessing the attribute even on an instance\n will return the descriptor object itself. If the descriptor\n defines ``__set__()`` and/or ``__delete__()``, it is a data\n descriptor; if it defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.\n\n[3] For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the non-\n reflected method (such as ``__add__()``) fails the operation is\n not supported, which is why the reflected method is not called.\n',
'string-methods': '\nString Methods\n**************\n\nString objects support the methods listed below. Note that none of\nthese methods take keyword arguments.\n\nIn addition, Python\'s strings support the sequence type methods\ndescribed in the *Sequence Types --- str, bytes, bytearray, list,\ntuple, range* section. To output formatted strings, see the *String\nFormatting* section. Also, see the ``re`` module for string functions\nbased on regular expressions.\n\nstr.capitalize()\n\n Return a copy of the string with only its first character\n capitalized.\n\nstr.center(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return centered in a string of length *width*. Padding is done\n using the specified *fillchar* (default is a space).\n\nstr.count(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring *sub*\n in the range [*start*, *end*]. Optional arguments *start* and\n *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.\n\nstr.encode([encoding[, errors]])\n\n Return an encoded version of the string as a bytes object. Default\n encoding is the current default string encoding. *errors* may be\n given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for\n *errors* is ``\'strict\'``, meaning that encoding errors raise a\n ``UnicodeError``. Other possible values are ``\'ignore\'``,\n ``\'replace\'``, ``\'xmlcharrefreplace\'``, ``\'backslashreplace\'`` and\n any other name registered via ``codecs.register_error()``, see\n section *Codec Base Classes*. For a list of possible encodings, see\n section *Standard Encodings*.\n\nstr.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])\n\n Return ``True`` if the string ends with the specified *suffix*,\n otherwise return ``False``. *suffix* can also be a tuple of\n suffixes to look for. With optional *start*, test beginning at\n that position. With optional *end*, stop comparing at that\n position.\n\nstr.expandtabs([tabsize])\n\n Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced\n by one or more spaces, depending on the current column and the\n given tab size. The column number is reset to zero after each\n newline occurring in the string. If *tabsize* is not given, a tab\n size of ``8`` characters is assumed. This doesn\'t understand other\n non-printing characters or escape sequences.\n\nstr.find(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the lowest index in the string where substring *sub* is\n found, such that *sub* is contained in the range [*start*, *end*].\n Optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice\n notation. Return ``-1`` if *sub* is not found.\n\nstr.format(*args, **kwargs)\n\n Perform a string formatting operation. The *format_string*\n argument can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited\n by braces ``{}``. Each replacement field contains either the\n numeric index of a positional argument, or the name of a keyword\n argument. Returns a copy of *format_string* where each replacement\n field is replaced with the string value of the corresponding\n argument.\n\n >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)\n \'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3\'\n\n See *Format String Syntax* for a description of the various\n formatting options that can be specified in format strings.\n\nstr.index(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Like ``find()``, but raise ``ValueError`` when the substring is not\n found.\n\nstr.isalnum()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and\n there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isalpha()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and\n there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isdecimal()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are decimal characters\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Decimal\n characters include digit characters, and all characters that that\n can be used to form decimal-radix numbers, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-\n INDIC DIGIT ZERO.\n\nstr.isdigit()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are digits and there is\n at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isidentifier()\n\n Return true if the string is a valid identifier according to the\n language definition, section *Identifiers and keywords*.\n\nstr.islower()\n\n Return true if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and\n there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isnumeric()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are numeric characters,\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Numeric\n characters include digit characters, and all characters that have\n the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION\n ONE FIFTH.\n\nstr.isprintable()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are printable or the\n string is empty, false otherwise. Nonprintable characters are\n those characters defined in the Unicode character database as\n "Other" or "Separator", excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is\n considered printable. (Note that printable characters in this\n context are those which should not be escaped when ``repr()`` is\n invoked on a string. It has no bearing on the handling of strings\n written to ``sys.stdout`` or ``sys.stderr``.)\n\nstr.isspace()\n\n Return true if there are only whitespace characters in the string\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.istitle()\n\n Return true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at\n least one character, for example uppercase characters may only\n follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones.\n Return false otherwise.\n\nstr.isupper()\n\n Return true if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and\n there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.join(seq)\n\n Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in the\n sequence *seq*. A ``TypeError`` will be raised if there are any\n non-string values in *seq*, including ``bytes`` objects. The\n separator between elements is the string providing this method.\n\nstr.ljust(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return the string left justified in a string of length *width*.\n Padding is done using the specified *fillchar* (default is a\n space). The original string is returned if *width* is less than\n ``len(s)``.\n\nstr.lower()\n\n Return a copy of the string converted to lowercase.\n\nstr.lstrip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed. The\n *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be\n removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to\n removing whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a prefix; rather,\n all combinations of its values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.lstrip()\n \'spacious \'\n >>> \'www.example.com\'.lstrip(\'cmowz.\')\n \'example.com\'\n\nstatic str.maketrans(x[, y[, z]])\n\n This static method returns a translation table usable for\n ``str.translate()``.\n\n If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping\n Unicode ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to\n Unicode ordinals, strings (of arbitrary lengths) or None.\n Character keys will then be converted to ordinals.\n\n If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length,\n and in the resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped\n to the character at the same position in y. If there is a third\n argument, it must be a string, whose characters will be mapped to\n None in the result.\n\nstr.partition(sep)\n\n Split the string at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a\n 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator\n itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not\n found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by\n two empty strings.\n\nstr.replace(old, new[, count])\n\n Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring *old*\n replaced by *new*. If the optional argument *count* is given, only\n the first *count* occurrences are replaced.\n\nstr.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the highest index in the string where substring *sub* is\n found, such that *sub* is contained within s[start,end]. Optional\n arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.\n Return ``-1`` on failure.\n\nstr.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Like ``rfind()`` but raises ``ValueError`` when the substring *sub*\n is not found.\n\nstr.rjust(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return the string right justified in a string of length *width*.\n Padding is done using the specified *fillchar* (default is a\n space). The original string is returned if *width* is less than\n ``len(s)``.\n\nstr.rpartition(sep)\n\n Split the string at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a\n 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator\n itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not\n found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by\n the string itself.\n\nstr.rsplit([sep[, maxsplit]])\n\n Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the\n delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits\n are done, the *rightmost* ones. If *sep* is not specified or\n ``None``, any whitespace string is a separator. Except for\n splitting from the right, ``rsplit()`` behaves like ``split()``\n which is described in detail below.\n\nstr.rstrip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. The\n *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be\n removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to\n removing whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a suffix; rather,\n all combinations of its values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.rstrip()\n \' spacious\'\n >>> \'mississippi\'.rstrip(\'ipz\')\n \'mississ\'\n\nstr.split([sep[, maxsplit]])\n\n Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the\n delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit*\n splits are done (thus, the list will have at most ``maxsplit+1``\n elements). If *maxsplit* is not specified, then there is no limit\n on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).\n\n If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together\n and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,\n ``\'1,,2\'.split(\',\')`` returns ``[\'1\', \'\', \'2\']``). The *sep*\n argument may consist of multiple characters (for example,\n ``\'1<>2<>3\'.split(\'<>\')`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2\', \'3\']``). Splitting\n an empty string with a specified separator returns ``[\'\']``.\n\n If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting\n algorithm is applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded\n as a single separator, and the result will contain no empty strings\n at the start or end if the string has leading or trailing\n whitespace. Consequently, splitting an empty string or a string\n consisting of just whitespace with a ``None`` separator returns\n ``[]``.\n\n For example, ``\' 1 2 3 \'.split()`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2\', \'3\']``,\n and ``\' 1 2 3 \'.split(None, 1)`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2 3 \']``.\n\nstr.splitlines([keepends])\n\n Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line\n boundaries. Line breaks are not included in the resulting list\n unless *keepends* is given and true.\n\nstr.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])\n\n Return ``True`` if string starts with the *prefix*, otherwise\n return ``False``. *prefix* can also be a tuple of prefixes to look\n for. With optional *start*, test string beginning at that\n position. With optional *end*, stop comparing string at that\n position.\n\nstr.strip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing\n characters removed. The *chars* argument is a string specifying the\n set of characters to be removed. If omitted or ``None``, the\n *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace. The *chars*\n argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its\n values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.strip()\n \'spacious\'\n >>> \'www.example.com\'.strip(\'cmowz.\')\n \'example\'\n\nstr.swapcase()\n\n Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to\n lowercase and vice versa.\n\nstr.title()\n\n Return a titlecased version of the string: words start with\n uppercase characters, all remaining cased characters are lowercase.\n\nstr.translate(map)\n\n Return a copy of the *s* where all characters have been mapped\n through the *map* which must be a dictionary of Unicode ordinals\n (integers) to Unicode ordinals, strings or ``None``. Unmapped\n characters are left untouched. Characters mapped to ``None`` are\n deleted.\n\n You can use ``str.maketrans()`` to create a translation map from\n character-to-character mappings in different formats.\n\n Note: An even more flexible approach is to create a custom character\n mapping codec using the ``codecs`` module (see\n ``encodings.cp1251`` for an example).\n\nstr.upper()\n\n Return a copy of the string converted to uppercase.\n\nstr.zfill(width)\n\n Return the numeric string left filled with zeros in a string of\n length *width*. A sign prefix is handled correctly. The original\n string is returned if *width* is less than ``len(s)``.\n',
'strings': '\nString and Bytes literals\n*************************\n\nString literals are described by the following lexical definitions:\n\n stringliteral ::= [stringprefix](shortstring | longstring)\n stringprefix ::= "r" | "R"\n shortstring ::= "\'" shortstringitem* "\'" | \'"\' shortstringitem* \'"\'\n longstring ::= "\'\'\'" longstringitem* "\'\'\'" | \'"""\' longstringitem* \'"""\'\n shortstringitem ::= shortstringchar | stringescapeseq\n longstringitem ::= longstringchar | stringescapeseq\n shortstringchar ::= <any source character except "\\" or newline or the quote>\n longstringchar ::= <any source character except "\\">\n stringescapeseq ::= "\\" <any source character>\n\n bytesliteral ::= bytesprefix(shortbytes | longbytes)\n bytesprefix ::= "b" | "B"\n shortbytes ::= "\'" shortbytesitem* "\'" | \'"\' shortbytesitem* \'"\'\n longbytes ::= "\'\'\'" longbytesitem* "\'\'\'" | \'"""\' longbytesitem* \'"""\'\n shortbytesitem ::= shortbyteschar | bytesescapeseq\n longbytesitem ::= longbyteschar | bytesescapeseq\n shortbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\\" or newline or the quote>\n longbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\\">\n bytesescapeseq ::= "\\" <any ASCII character>\n\nOne syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that\nwhitespace is not allowed between the **stringprefix** or\n**bytesprefix** and the rest of the literal. The source character set\nis defined by the encoding declaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding\ndeclaration is given in the source file; see section *Encoding\ndeclarations*.\n\nIn plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching\nsingle quotes (``\'``) or double quotes (``"``). They can also be\nenclosed in matching groups of three single or double quotes (these\nare generally referred to as *triple-quoted strings*). The backslash\n(``\\``) character is used to escape characters that otherwise have a\nspecial meaning, such as newline, backslash itself, or the quote\ncharacter.\n\nString literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ``\'r\'`` or\n``\'R\'``; such strings are called *raw strings* and treat backslashes\nas literal characters. As a result, ``\'\\U\'`` and ``\'\\u\'`` escapes in\nraw strings are not treated specially.\n\nBytes literals are always prefixed with ``\'b\'`` or ``\'B\'``; they\nproduce an instance of the ``bytes`` type instead of the ``str`` type.\nThey may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of\n128 or greater must be expressed with escapes.\n\nIn triple-quoted strings, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed\n(and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row\nterminate the string. (A "quote" is the character used to open the\nstring, i.e. either ``\'`` or ``"``.)\n\nUnless an ``\'r\'`` or ``\'R\'`` prefix is present, escape sequences in\nstrings are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by\nStandard C. The recognized escape sequences are:\n\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| Escape Sequence | Meaning | Notes |\n+===================+===================================+=========+\n| ``\\newline`` | Backslash and newline ignored | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\\\`` | Backslash (``\\``) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\\'`` | Single quote (``\'``) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\"`` | Double quote (``"``) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\a`` | ASCII Bell (BEL) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\b`` | ASCII Backspace (BS) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\f`` | ASCII Formfeed (FF) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\n`` | ASCII Linefeed (LF) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\r`` | ASCII Carriage Return (CR) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\t`` | ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\v`` | ASCII Vertical Tab (VT) | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\ooo`` | Character with octal value *ooo* | (1,3) |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\xhh`` | Character with hex value *hh* | (2,3) |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n\nEscape sequences only recognized in string literals are:\n\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| Escape Sequence | Meaning | Notes |\n+===================+===================================+=========+\n| ``\\N{name}`` | Character named *name* in the | |\n| | Unicode database | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\uxxxx`` | Character with 16-bit hex value | (4) |\n| | *xxxx* | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\\Uxxxxxxxx`` | Character with 32-bit hex value | (5) |\n| | *xxxxxxxx* | |\n+-------------------+-----------------------------------+---------+\n\nNotes:\n\n1. As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.\n\n2. Unlike in Standard C, at most two hex digits are accepted.\n\n3. In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte\n with the given value. In a string literal, these escapes denote a\n Unicode character with the given value.\n\n4. Individual code units which form parts of a surrogate pair can be\n encoded using this escape sequence. Unlike in Standard C, exactly\n two hex digits are required.\n\n5. Any Unicode character can be encoded this way, but characters\n outside the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) will be encoded using a\n surrogate pair if Python is compiled to use 16-bit code units (the\n default). Individual code units which form parts of a surrogate\n pair can be encoded using this escape sequence.\n\nUnlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the\nstring unchanged, i.e., *the backslash is left in the string*. (This\nbehavior is useful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped,\nthe resulting output is more easily recognized as broken.) It is also\nimportant to note that the escape sequences only recognized in string\nliterals fall into the category of unrecognized escapes for bytes\nliterals.\n\nEven in a raw string, string quotes can be escaped with a backslash,\nbut the backslash remains in the string; for example, ``r"\\""`` is a\nvalid string literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a\ndouble quote; ``r"\\"`` is not a valid string literal (even a raw\nstring cannot end in an odd number of backslashes). Specifically, *a\nraw string cannot end in a single backslash* (since the backslash\nwould escape the following quote character). Note also that a single\nbackslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those two characters\nas part of the string, *not* as a line continuation.\n',
'subscriptions': '\nSubscriptions\n*************\n\nA subscription selects an item of a sequence (string, tuple or list)\nor mapping (dictionary) object:\n\n subscription ::= primary "[" expression_list "]"\n\nThe primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription,\ne.g. a list or dictionary. User-defined objects can support\nsubscription by defining a ``__getitem__()`` method.\n\nFor built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support\nsubscription:\n\nIf the primary is a mapping, the expression list must evaluate to an\nobject whose value is one of the keys of the mapping, and the\nsubscription selects the value in the mapping that corresponds to that\nkey. (The expression list is a tuple except if it has exactly one\nitem.)\n\nIf the primary is a sequence, the expression (list) must evaluate to\nan integer. If this value is negative, the length of the sequence is\nadded to it (so that, e.g., ``x[-1]`` selects the last item of ``x``.)\nThe resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the number\nof items in the sequence, and the subscription selects the item whose\nindex is that value (counting from zero).\n\nA string\'s items are characters. A character is not a separate data\ntype but a string of exactly one character.\n',
'truth': "\nTruth Value Testing\n*******************\n\nAny object can be tested for truth value, for use in an ``if`` or\n``while`` condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below. The\nfollowing values are considered false:\n\n* ``None``\n\n* ``False``\n\n* zero of any numeric type, for example, ``0``, ``0.0``, ``0j``.\n\n* any empty sequence, for example, ``''``, ``()``, ``[]``.\n\n* any empty mapping, for example, ``{}``.\n\n* instances of user-defined classes, if the class defines a\n ``__bool__()`` or ``__len__()`` method, when that method returns the\n integer zero or ``bool`` value ``False``. [1]\n\nAll other values are considered true --- so objects of many types are\nalways true.\n\nOperations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always\nreturn ``0`` or ``False`` for false and ``1`` or ``True`` for true,\nunless otherwise stated. (Important exception: the Boolean operations\n``or`` and ``and`` always return one of their operands.)\n",
'try': '\nThe ``try`` statement\n*********************\n\nThe ``try`` statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code\nfor a group of statements:\n\n try_stmt ::= try1_stmt | try2_stmt\n try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite\n ("except" [expression ["as" target]] ":" suite)+\n ["else" ":" suite]\n ["finally" ":" suite]\n try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" suite\n "finally" ":" suite\n\nThe ``except`` clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When\nno exception occurs in the ``try`` clause, no exception handler is\nexecuted. When an exception occurs in the ``try`` suite, a search for\nan exception handler is started. This search inspects the except\nclauses in turn until one is found that matches the exception. An\nexpression-less except clause, if present, must be last; it matches\nany exception. For an except clause with an expression, that\nexpression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception if the\nresulting object is "compatible" with the exception. An object is\ncompatible with an exception if it is the class or a base class of the\nexception object or a tuple containing an item compatible with the\nexception.\n\nIf no except clause matches the exception, the search for an exception\nhandler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.\n[1]\n\nIf the evaluation of an expression in the header of an except clause\nraises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and\na search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on\nthe call stack (it is treated as if the entire ``try`` statement\nraised the exception).\n\nWhen a matching except clause is found, the exception is assigned to\nthe target specified after the ``as`` keyword in that except clause,\nif present, and the except clause\'s suite is executed. All except\nclauses must have an executable block. When the end of this block is\nreached, execution continues normally after the entire try statement.\n(This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same exception,\nand the exception occurs in the try clause of the inner handler, the\nouter handler will not handle the exception.)\n\nWhen an exception has been assigned using ``as target``, it is cleared\nat the end of the except clause. This is as if\n\n except E as N:\n foo\n\nwas translated to\n\n except E as N:\n try:\n foo\n finally:\n N = None\n del N\n\nThat means that you have to assign the exception to a different name\nif you want to be able to refer to it after the except clause. The\nreason for this is that with the traceback attached to them,\nexceptions will form a reference cycle with the stack frame, keeping\nall locals in that frame alive until the next garbage collection\noccurs.\n\nBefore an except clause\'s suite is executed, details about the\nexception are stored in the ``sys`` module and can be access via\n``sys.exc_info()``. ``sys.exc_info()`` returns a 3-tuple consisting\nof: ``exc_type``, the exception class; ``exc_value``, the exception\ninstance; ``exc_traceback``, a traceback object (see section *The\nstandard type hierarchy*) identifying the point in the program where\nthe exception occurred. ``sys.exc_info()`` values are restored to\ntheir previous values (before the call) when returning from a function\nthat handled an exception.\n\nThe optional ``else`` clause is executed if and when control flows off\nthe end of the ``try`` clause. [2] Exceptions in the ``else`` clause\nare not handled by the preceding ``except`` clauses.\n\nIf ``finally`` is present, it specifies a \'cleanup\' handler. The\n``try`` clause is executed, including any ``except`` and ``else``\nclauses. If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is not\nhandled, the exception is temporarily saved. The ``finally`` clause is\nexecuted. If there is a saved exception, it is re-raised at the end\nof the ``finally`` clause. If the ``finally`` clause raises another\nexception or executes a ``return`` or ``break`` statement, the saved\nexception is lost. The exception information is not available to the\nprogram during execution of the ``finally`` clause.\n\nWhen a ``return``, ``break`` or ``continue`` statement is executed in\nthe ``try`` suite of a ``try``...``finally`` statement, the\n``finally`` clause is also executed \'on the way out.\' A ``continue``\nstatement is illegal in the ``finally`` clause. (The reason is a\nproblem with the current implementation --- this restriction may be\nlifted in the future).\n\nAdditional information on exceptions can be found in section\n*Exceptions*, and information on using the ``raise`` statement to\ngenerate exceptions may be found in section *The raise statement*.\n',
'types': '\nThe standard type hierarchy\n***************************\n\nBelow is a list of the types that are built into Python. Extension\nmodules (written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the\nimplementation) can define additional types. Future versions of\nPython may add types to the type hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers,\nefficiently stored arrays of integers, etc.), although such additions\nwill often be provided via the standard library instead.\n\nSome of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing\n\'special attributes.\' These are attributes that provide access to the\nimplementation and are not intended for general use. Their definition\nmay change in the future.\n\nNone\n This type has a single value. There is a single object with this\n value. This object is accessed through the built-in name ``None``.\n It is used to signify the absence of a value in many situations,\n e.g., it is returned from functions that don\'t explicitly return\n anything. Its truth value is false.\n\nNotImplemented\n This type has a single value. There is a single object with this\n value. This object is accessed through the built-in name\n ``NotImplemented``. Numeric methods and rich comparison methods may\n return this value if they do not implement the operation for the\n operands provided. (The interpreter will then try the reflected\n operation, or some other fallback, depending on the operator.) Its\n truth value is true.\n\nEllipsis\n This type has a single value. There is a single object with this\n value. This object is accessed through the literal ``...`` or the\n built-in name ``Ellipsis``. Its truth value is true.\n\n``numbers.Number``\n These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by\n arithmetic operators and arithmetic built-in functions. Numeric\n objects are immutable; once created their value never changes.\n Python numbers are of course strongly related to mathematical\n numbers, but subject to the limitations of numerical representation\n in computers.\n\n Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and\n complex numbers:\n\n ``numbers.Integral``\n These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers\n (positive and negative).\n\n There are two types of integers:\n\n Integers (``int``)\n\n These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to\n available (virtual) memory only. For the purpose of shift\n and mask operations, a binary representation is assumed, and\n negative numbers are represented in a variant of 2\'s\n complement which gives the illusion of an infinite string of\n sign bits extending to the left.\n\n Booleans (``bool``)\n These represent the truth values False and True. The two\n objects representing the values False and True are the only\n Boolean objects. The Boolean type is a subtype of the integer\n type, and Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1,\n respectively, in almost all contexts, the exception being\n that when converted to a string, the strings ``"False"`` or\n ``"True"`` are returned, respectively.\n\n The rules for integer representation are intended to give the\n most meaningful interpretation of shift and mask operations\n involving negative integers.\n\n ``numbers.Real`` (``float``)\n These represent machine-level double precision floating point\n numbers. You are at the mercy of the underlying machine\n architecture (and C or Java implementation) for the accepted\n range and handling of overflow. Python does not support single-\n precision floating point numbers; the savings in processor and\n memory usage that are usually the reason for using these is\n dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so there is\n no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of floating\n point numbers.\n\n ``numbers.Complex`` (``complex``)\n These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level\n double precision floating point numbers. The same caveats apply\n as for floating point numbers. The real and imaginary parts of a\n complex number ``z`` can be retrieved through the read-only\n attributes ``z.real`` and ``z.imag``.\n\nSequences\n These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative\n numbers. The built-in function ``len()`` returns the number of\n items of a sequence. When the length of a sequence is *n*, the\n index set contains the numbers 0, 1, ..., *n*-1. Item *i* of\n sequence *a* is selected by ``a[i]``.\n\n Sequences also support slicing: ``a[i:j]`` selects all items with\n index *k* such that *i* ``<=`` *k* ``<`` *j*. When used as an\n expression, a slice is a sequence of the same type. This implies\n that the index set is renumbered so that it starts at 0.\n\n Some sequences also support "extended slicing" with a third "step"\n parameter: ``a[i:j:k]`` selects all items of *a* with index *x*\n where ``x = i + n*k``, *n* ``>=`` ``0`` and *i* ``<=`` *x* ``<``\n *j*.\n\n Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:\n\n Immutable sequences\n An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is\n created. (If the object contains references to other objects,\n these other objects may be mutable and may be changed; however,\n the collection of objects directly referenced by an immutable\n object cannot change.)\n\n The following types are immutable sequences:\n\n Strings\n The items of a string object are Unicode code units. A\n Unicode code unit is represented by a string object of one\n item and can hold either a 16-bit or 32-bit value\n representing a Unicode ordinal (the maximum value for the\n ordinal is given in ``sys.maxunicode``, and depends on how\n Python is configured at compile time). Surrogate pairs may\n be present in the Unicode object, and will be reported as two\n separate items. The built-in functions ``chr()`` and\n ``ord()`` convert between code units and nonnegative integers\n representing the Unicode ordinals as defined in the Unicode\n Standard 3.0. Conversion from and to other encodings are\n possible through the string method ``encode()``.\n\n Tuples\n The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects. Tuples of\n two or more items are formed by comma-separated lists of\n expressions. A tuple of one item (a \'singleton\') can be\n formed by affixing a comma to an expression (an expression by\n itself does not create a tuple, since parentheses must be\n usable for grouping of expressions). An empty tuple can be\n formed by an empty pair of parentheses.\n\n Bytes\n A bytes object is an immutable array. The items are 8-bit\n bytes, represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.\n Bytes literals (like ``b\'abc\'`` and the built-in function\n ``bytes()`` can be used to construct bytes objects. Also,\n bytes objects can be decoded to strings via the ``decode()``\n method.\n\n Mutable sequences\n Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created. The\n subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of\n assignment and ``del`` (delete) statements.\n\n There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types:\n\n Lists\n The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects. Lists are\n formed by placing a comma-separated list of expressions in\n square brackets. (Note that there are no special cases needed\n to form lists of length 0 or 1.)\n\n Byte Arrays\n A bytearray object is a mutable array. They are created by\n the built-in ``bytearray()`` constructor. Aside from being\n mutable (and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide\n the same interface and functionality as immutable bytes\n objects.\n\n The extension module ``array`` provides an additional example of\n a mutable sequence type, as does the ``collections`` module.\n\nSet types\n These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable\n objects. As such, they cannot be indexed by any subscript. However,\n they can be iterated over, and the built-in function ``len()``\n returns the number of items in a set. Common uses for sets are fast\n membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and\n computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union,\n difference, and symmetric difference.\n\n For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for\n dictionary keys. Note that numeric types obey the normal rules for\n numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ``1`` and\n ``1.0``), only one of them can be contained in a set.\n\n There are currently two intrinsic set types:\n\n Sets\n These represent a mutable set. They are created by the built-in\n ``set()`` constructor and can be modified afterwards by several\n methods, such as ``add()``.\n\n Frozen sets\n These represent an immutable set. They are created by the\n built-in ``frozenset()`` constructor. As a frozenset is\n immutable and *hashable*, it can be used again as an element of\n another set, or as a dictionary key.\n\nMappings\n These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index\n sets. The subscript notation ``a[k]`` selects the item indexed by\n ``k`` from the mapping ``a``; this can be used in expressions and\n as the target of assignments or ``del`` statements. The built-in\n function ``len()`` returns the number of items in a mapping.\n\n There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:\n\n Dictionaries\n These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly\n arbitrary values. The only types of values not acceptable as\n keys are values containing lists or dictionaries or other\n mutable types that are compared by value rather than by object\n identity, the reason being that the efficient implementation of\n dictionaries requires a key\'s hash value to remain constant.\n Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric\n comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ``1`` and\n ``1.0``) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same\n dictionary entry.\n\n Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ``{...}``\n notation (see section *Dictionary displays*).\n\n The extension modules ``dbm.ndbm`` and ``dbm.gnu`` provide\n additional examples of mapping types, as does the\n ``collections`` module.\n\nCallable types\n These are the types to which the function call operation (see\n section *Calls*) can be applied:\n\n User-defined functions\n A user-defined function object is created by a function\n definition (see section *Function definitions*). It should be\n called with an argument list containing the same number of items\n as the function\'s formal parameter list.\n\n Special attributes:\n\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | Attribute | Meaning | |\n +===========================+=================================+=============+\n | ``__doc__`` | The function\'s documentation | Writable |\n | | string, or ``None`` if | |\n | | unavailable | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__name__`` | The function\'s name | Writable |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__module__`` | The name of the module the | Writable |\n | | function was defined in, or | |\n | | ``None`` if unavailable. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__defaults__`` | A tuple containing default | Writable |\n | | argument values for those | |\n | | arguments that have defaults, | |\n | | or ``None`` if no arguments | |\n | | have a default value | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__code__`` | The code object representing | Writable |\n | | the compiled function body. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__globals__`` | A reference to the dictionary | Read-only |\n | | that holds the function\'s | |\n | | global variables --- the global | |\n | | namespace of the module in | |\n | | which the function was defined. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__dict__`` | The namespace supporting | Writable |\n | | arbitrary function attributes. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__closure__`` | ``None`` or a tuple of cells | Read-only |\n | | that contain bindings for the | |\n | | function\'s free variables. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__annotations__`` | A dict containing annotations | Writable |\n | | of parameters. The keys of the | |\n | | dict are the parameter names, | |\n | | or ``\'return\'`` for the return | |\n | | annotation, if provided. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n | ``__kwdefaults__`` | A dict containing defaults for | Writable |\n | | keyword-only parameters. | |\n +---------------------------+---------------------------------+-------------+\n\n Most of the attributes labelled "Writable" check the type of the\n assigned value.\n\n Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary\n attributes, which can be used, for example, to attach metadata\n to functions. Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and\n set such attributes. *Note that the current implementation only\n supports function attributes on user-defined functions. Function\n attributes on built-in functions may be supported in the\n future.*\n\n Additional information about a function\'s definition can be\n retrieved from its code object; see the description of internal\n types below.\n\n Instance methods\n An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and\n any callable object (normally a user-defined function).\n\n Special read-only attributes: ``__self__`` is the class instance\n object, ``__func__`` is the function object; ``__doc__`` is the\n method\'s documentation (same as ``__func__.__doc__``);\n ``__name__`` is the method name (same as ``__func__.__name__``);\n ``__module__`` is the name of the module the method was defined\n in, or ``None`` if unavailable.\n\n Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary\n function attributes on the underlying function object.\n\n User-defined method objects may be created when getting an\n attribute of a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if\n that attribute is a user-defined function object or a class\n method object.\n\n When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-\n defined function object from a class via one of its instances,\n its ``__self__`` attribute is the instance, and the method\n object is said to be bound. The new method\'s ``__func__``\n attribute is the original function object.\n\n When a user-defined method object is created by retrieving\n another method object from a class or instance, the behaviour is\n the same as for a function object, except that the ``__func__``\n attribute of the new instance is not the original method object\n but its ``__func__`` attribute.\n\n When an instance method object is created by retrieving a class\n method object from a class or instance, its ``__self__``\n attribute is the class itself, and its ``__func__`` attribute is\n the function object underlying the class method.\n\n When an instance method object is called, the underlying\n function (``__func__``) is called, inserting the class instance\n (``__self__``) in front of the argument list. For instance,\n when ``C`` is a class which contains a definition for a function\n ``f()``, and ``x`` is an instance of ``C``, calling ``x.f(1)``\n is equivalent to calling ``C.f(x, 1)``.\n\n When an instance method object is derived from a class method\n object, the "class instance" stored in ``__self__`` will\n actually be the class itself, so that calling either ``x.f(1)``\n or ``C.f(1)`` is equivalent to calling ``f(C,1)`` where ``f`` is\n the underlying function.\n\n Note that the transformation from function object to instance\n method object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from\n the instance. In some cases, a fruitful optimization is to\n assign the attribute to a local variable and call that local\n variable. Also notice that this transformation only happens for\n user-defined functions; other callable objects (and all non-\n callable objects) are retrieved without transformation. It is\n also important to note that user-defined functions which are\n attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound\n methods; this *only* happens when the function is an attribute\n of the class.\n\n Generator functions\n A function or method which uses the ``yield`` statement (see\n section *The yield statement*) is called a *generator function*.\n Such a function, when called, always returns an iterator object\n which can be used to execute the body of the function: calling\n the iterator\'s ``__next__()`` method will cause the function to\n execute until it provides a value using the ``yield`` statement.\n When the function executes a ``return`` statement or falls off\n the end, a ``StopIteration`` exception is raised and the\n iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be\n returned.\n\n Built-in functions\n A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.\n Examples of built-in functions are ``len()`` and ``math.sin()``\n (``math`` is a standard built-in module). The number and type of\n the arguments are determined by the C function. Special read-\n only attributes: ``__doc__`` is the function\'s documentation\n string, or ``None`` if unavailable; ``__name__`` is the\n function\'s name; ``__self__`` is set to ``None`` (but see the\n next item); ``__module__`` is the name of the module the\n function was defined in or ``None`` if unavailable.\n\n Built-in methods\n This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this\n time containing an object passed to the C function as an\n implicit extra argument. An example of a built-in method is\n ``alist.append()``, assuming *alist* is a list object. In this\n case, the special read-only attribute ``__self__`` is set to the\n object denoted by *list*.\n\n Classes\n Classes are callable. These objects normally act as factories\n for new instances of themselves, but variations are possible for\n class types that override ``__new__()``. The arguments of the\n call are passed to ``__new__()`` and, in the typical case, to\n ``__init__()`` to initialize the new instance.\n\n Class Instances\n Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining\n a ``__call__()`` method in their class.\n\nModules\n Modules are imported by the ``import`` statement (see section *The\n import statement*). A module object has a namespace implemented by\n a dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the\n __globals__ attribute of functions defined in the module).\n Attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary,\n e.g., ``m.x`` is equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"]``. A module object\n does not contain the code object used to initialize the module\n (since it isn\'t needed once the initialization is done).\n\n Attribute assignment updates the module\'s namespace dictionary,\n e.g., ``m.x = 1`` is equivalent to ``m.__dict__["x"] = 1``.\n\n Special read-only attribute: ``__dict__`` is the module\'s namespace\n as a dictionary object.\n\n Predefined (writable) attributes: ``__name__`` is the module\'s\n name; ``__doc__`` is the module\'s documentation string, or ``None``\n if unavailable; ``__file__`` is the pathname of the file from which\n the module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file. The\n ``__file__`` attribute is not present for C modules that are\n statically linked into the interpreter; for extension modules\n loaded dynamically from a shared library, it is the pathname of the\n shared library file.\n\nCustom classes\n Custon class types are typically created by class definitions (see\n section *Class definitions*). A class has a namespace implemented\n by a dictionary object. Class attribute references are translated\n to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ``C.x`` is translated to\n ``C.__dict__["x"]`` (although there are a number of hooks which\n allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute\n name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base\n classes. This search of the base classes uses the C3 method\n resolution order which behaves correctly even in the presence of\n \'diamond\' inheritance structures where there are multiple\n inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor. Additional\n details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found in the\n documentation accompanying the 2.3 release at\n http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/.\n\n When a class attribute reference (for class ``C``, say) would yield\n a class method object, it is transformed into an instance method\n object whose ``__self__`` attributes is ``C``. When it would yield\n a static method object, it is transformed into the object wrapped\n by the static method object. See section *Implementing Descriptors*\n for another way in which attributes retrieved from a class may\n differ from those actually contained in its ``__dict__``.\n\n Class attribute assignments update the class\'s dictionary, never\n the dictionary of a base class.\n\n A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance\n (see below).\n\n Special attributes: ``__name__`` is the class name; ``__module__``\n is the module name in which the class was defined; ``__dict__`` is\n the dictionary containing the class\'s namespace; ``__bases__`` is a\n tuple (possibly empty or a singleton) containing the base classes,\n in the order of their occurrence in the base class list;\n ``__doc__`` is the class\'s documentation string, or None if\n undefined.\n\nClass instances\n A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).\n A class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which\n is the first place in which attribute references are searched.\n When an attribute is not found there, and the instance\'s class has\n an attribute by that name, the search continues with the class\n attributes. If a class attribute is found that is a user-defined\n function object, it is transformed into an instance method object\n whose ``__self__`` attribute is the instance. Static method and\n class method objects are also transformed; see above under\n "Classes". See section *Implementing Descriptors* for another way\n in which attributes of a class retrieved via its instances may\n differ from the objects actually stored in the class\'s\n ``__dict__``. If no class attribute is found, and the object\'s\n class has a ``__getattr__()`` method, that is called to satisfy the\n lookup.\n\n Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance\'s\n dictionary, never a class\'s dictionary. If the class has a\n ``__setattr__()`` or ``__delattr__()`` method, this is called\n instead of updating the instance dictionary directly.\n\n Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings\n if they have methods with certain special names. See section\n *Special method names*.\n\n Special attributes: ``__dict__`` is the attribute dictionary;\n ``__class__`` is the instance\'s class.\n\nFiles\n A file object represents an open file. File objects are created by\n the ``open()`` built-in function, and also by ``os.popen()``,\n ``os.fdopen()``, and the ``makefile()`` method of socket objects\n (and perhaps by other functions or methods provided by extension\n modules). The objects ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout`` and\n ``sys.stderr`` are initialized to file objects corresponding to the\n interpreter\'s standard input, output and error streams. See *File\n Objects* for complete documentation of file objects.\n\nInternal types\n A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the\n user. Their definitions may change with future versions of the\n interpreter, but they are mentioned here for completeness.\n\n Code objects\n Code objects represent *byte-compiled* executable Python code,\n or *bytecode*. The difference between a code object and a\n function object is that the function object contains an explicit\n reference to the function\'s globals (the module in which it was\n defined), while a code object contains no context; also the\n default argument values are stored in the function object, not\n in the code object (because they represent values calculated at\n run-time). Unlike function objects, code objects are immutable\n and contain no references (directly or indirectly) to mutable\n objects.\n\n Special read-only attributes: ``co_name`` gives the function\n name; ``co_argcount`` is the number of positional arguments\n (including arguments with default values); ``co_nlocals`` is the\n number of local variables used by the function (including\n arguments); ``co_varnames`` is a tuple containing the names of\n the local variables (starting with the argument names);\n ``co_cellvars`` is a tuple containing the names of local\n variables that are referenced by nested functions;\n ``co_freevars`` is a tuple containing the names of free\n variables; ``co_code`` is a string representing the sequence of\n bytecode instructions; ``co_consts`` is a tuple containing the\n literals used by the bytecode; ``co_names`` is a tuple\n containing the names used by the bytecode; ``co_filename`` is\n the filename from which the code was compiled;\n ``co_firstlineno`` is the first line number of the function;\n ``co_lnotab`` is a string encoding the mapping from bytecode\n offsets to line numbers (for details see the source code of the\n interpreter); ``co_stacksize`` is the required stack size\n (including local variables); ``co_flags`` is an integer encoding\n a number of flags for the interpreter.\n\n The following flag bits are defined for ``co_flags``: bit\n ``0x04`` is set if the function uses the ``*arguments`` syntax\n to accept an arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit\n ``0x08`` is set if the function uses the ``**keywords`` syntax\n to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit ``0x20`` is set if\n the function is a generator.\n\n Future feature declarations (``from __future__ import\n division``) also use bits in ``co_flags`` to indicate whether a\n code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled: bit\n ``0x2000`` is set if the function was compiled with future\n division enabled; bits ``0x10`` and ``0x1000`` were used in\n earlier versions of Python.\n\n Other bits in ``co_flags`` are reserved for internal use.\n\n If a code object represents a function, the first item in\n ``co_consts`` is the documentation string of the function, or\n ``None`` if undefined.\n\n Frame objects\n Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in\n traceback objects (see below).\n\n Special read-only attributes: ``f_back`` is to the previous\n stack frame (towards the caller), or ``None`` if this is the\n bottom stack frame; ``f_code`` is the code object being executed\n in this frame; ``f_locals`` is the dictionary used to look up\n local variables; ``f_globals`` is used for global variables;\n ``f_builtins`` is used for built-in (intrinsic) names;\n ``f_lasti`` gives the precise instruction (this is an index into\n the bytecode string of the code object).\n\n Special writable attributes: ``f_trace``, if not ``None``, is a\n function called at the start of each source code line (this is\n used by the debugger); ``f_lineno`` is the current line number\n of the frame --- writing to this from within a trace function\n jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most frame). A\n debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement)\n by writing to f_lineno.\n\n Traceback objects\n Traceback objects represent a stack trace of an exception. A\n traceback object is created when an exception occurs. When the\n search for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at\n each unwound level a traceback object is inserted in front of\n the current traceback. When an exception handler is entered,\n the stack trace is made available to the program. (See section\n *The try statement*.) It is accessible as the third item of the\n tuple returned by ``sys.exc_info()``. When the program contains\n no suitable handler, the stack trace is written (nicely\n formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is\n interactive, it is also made available to the user as\n ``sys.last_traceback``.\n\n Special read-only attributes: ``tb_next`` is the next level in\n the stack trace (towards the frame where the exception\n occurred), or ``None`` if there is no next level; ``tb_frame``\n points to the execution frame of the current level;\n ``tb_lineno`` gives the line number where the exception\n occurred; ``tb_lasti`` indicates the precise instruction. The\n line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ\n from the line number of its frame object if the exception\n occurred in a ``try`` statement with no matching except clause\n or with a finally clause.\n\n Slice objects\n Slice objects are used to represent slices for ``__getitem__()``\n methods. They are also created by the built-in ``slice()``\n function.\n\n Special read-only attributes: ``start`` is the lower bound;\n ``stop`` is the upper bound; ``step`` is the step value; each is\n ``None`` if omitted. These attributes can have any type.\n\n Slice objects support one method:\n\n slice.indices(self, length)\n\n This method takes a single integer argument *length* and\n computes information about the slice that the slice object\n would describe if applied to a sequence of *length* items.\n It returns a tuple of three integers; respectively these are\n the *start* and *stop* indices and the *step* or stride\n length of the slice. Missing or out-of-bounds indices are\n handled in a manner consistent with regular slices.\n\n Static method objects\n Static method objects provide a way of defeating the\n transformation of function objects to method objects described\n above. A static method object is a wrapper around any other\n object, usually a user-defined method object. When a static\n method object is retrieved from a class or a class instance, the\n object actually returned is the wrapped object, which is not\n subject to any further transformation. Static method objects are\n not themselves callable, although the objects they wrap usually\n are. Static method objects are created by the built-in\n ``staticmethod()`` constructor.\n\n Class method objects\n A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper\n around another object that alters the way in which that object\n is retrieved from classes and class instances. The behaviour of\n class method objects upon such retrieval is described above,\n under "User-defined methods". Class method objects are created\n by the built-in ``classmethod()`` constructor.\n',
'typesfunctions': '\nFunctions\n*********\n\nFunction objects are created by function definitions. The only\noperation on a function object is to call it: ``func(argument-list)``.\n\nThere are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions\nand user-defined functions. Both support the same operation (to call\nthe function), but the implementation is different, hence the\ndifferent object types.\n\nSee *Function definitions* for more information.\n',
'typesmapping': '\nMapping Types --- ``dict``\n**************************\n\nA *mapping* object maps *hashable* values to arbitrary objects.\nMappings are mutable objects. There is currently only one standard\nmapping type, the *dictionary*. (For other containers see the built\nin ``list``, ``set``, and ``tuple`` classes, and the ``collections``\nmodule.)\n\nA dictionary\'s keys are *almost* arbitrary values. Values that are\nnot *hashable*, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or\nother mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object\nidentity) may not be used as keys. Numeric types used for keys obey\nthe normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal\n(such as ``1`` and ``1.0``) then they can be used interchangeably to\nindex the same dictionary entry. (Note however, that since computers\nstore floating-point numbers as approximations it is usually unwise to\nuse them as dictionary keys.)\n\nDictionaries can be created by placing a comma-separated list of\n``key: value`` pairs within braces, for example: ``{\'jack\': 4098,\n\'sjoerd\': 4127}`` or ``{4098: \'jack\', 4127: \'sjoerd\'}``, or by the\n``dict`` constructor.\n\nclass class dict([arg])\n\n Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional\n argument or from a set of keyword arguments. If no arguments are\n given, return a new empty dictionary. If the positional argument\n *arg* is a mapping object, return a dictionary mapping the same\n keys to the same values as does the mapping object. Otherwise the\n positional argument must be a sequence, a container that supports\n iteration, or an iterator object. The elements of the argument\n must each also be of one of those kinds, and each must in turn\n contain exactly two objects. The first is used as a key in the new\n dictionary, and the second as the key\'s value. If a given key is\n seen more than once, the last value associated with it is retained\n in the new dictionary.\n\n If keyword arguments are given, the keywords themselves with their\n associated values are added as items to the dictionary. If a key\n is specified both in the positional argument and as a keyword\n argument, the value associated with the keyword is retained in the\n dictionary. For example, these all return a dictionary equal to\n ``{"one": 2, "two": 3}``:\n\n * ``dict(one=2, two=3)``\n\n * ``dict({\'one\': 2, \'two\': 3})``\n\n * ``dict(zip((\'one\', \'two\'), (2, 3)))``\n\n * ``dict([[\'two\', 3], [\'one\', 2]])``\n\n The first example only works for keys that are valid Python\n identifiers; the others work with any valid keys.\n\n These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore,\n custom mapping types should support too):\n\n len(d)\n\n Return the number of items in the dictionary *d*.\n\n d[key]\n\n Return the item of *d* with key *key*. Raises a ``KeyError`` if\n *key* is not in the map.\n\n If a subclass of dict defines a method ``__missing__()``, if the\n key *key* is not present, the ``d[key]`` operation calls that\n method with the key *key* as argument. The ``d[key]`` operation\n then returns or raises whatever is returned or raised by the\n ``__missing__(key)`` call if the key is not present. No other\n operations or methods invoke ``__missing__()``. If\n ``__missing__()`` is not defined, ``KeyError`` is raised.\n ``__missing__()`` must be a method; it cannot be an instance\n variable. For an example, see ``collections.defaultdict``.\n\n d[key] = value\n\n Set ``d[key]`` to *value*.\n\n del d[key]\n\n Remove ``d[key]`` from *d*. Raises a ``KeyError`` if *key* is\n not in the map.\n\n key in d\n\n Return ``True`` if *d* has a key *key*, else ``False``.\n\n key not in d\n\n Equivalent to ``not key in d``.\n\n iter(d)\n\n Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary. This is a\n shortcut for ``iterkeys()``.\n\n clear()\n\n Remove all items from the dictionary.\n\n copy()\n\n Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.\n\n classmethod fromkeys(seq[, value])\n\n Create a new dictionary with keys from *seq* and values set to\n *value*.\n\n ``fromkeys()`` is a class method that returns a new dictionary.\n *value* defaults to ``None``.\n\n get(key[, default])\n\n Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the dictionary, else\n *default*. If *default* is not given, it defaults to ``None``,\n so that this method never raises a ``KeyError``.\n\n items()\n\n Return a new view of the dictionary\'s items (``(key, value)``\n pairs). See below for documentation of view objects.\n\n keys()\n\n Return a new view of the dictionary\'s keys. See below for\n documentation of view objects.\n\n pop(key[, default])\n\n If *key* is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value,\n else return *default*. If *default* is not given and *key* is\n not in the dictionary, a ``KeyError`` is raised.\n\n popitem()\n\n Remove and return an arbitrary ``(key, value)`` pair from the\n dictionary.\n\n ``popitem()`` is useful to destructively iterate over a\n dictionary, as often used in set algorithms. If the dictionary\n is empty, calling ``popitem()`` raises a ``KeyError``.\n\n setdefault(key[, default])\n\n If *key* is in the dictionary, return its value. If not, insert\n *key* with a value of *default* and return *default*. *default*\n defaults to ``None``.\n\n update([other])\n\n Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from *other*,\n overwriting existing keys. Return ``None``.\n\n ``update()`` accepts either another dictionary object or an\n iterable of key/value pairs (as a tuple or other iterable of\n length two). If keyword arguments are specified, the\n dictionary is then is updated with those key/value pairs:\n ``d.update(red=1, blue=2)``.\n\n values()\n\n Return a new view of the dictionary\'s values. See below for\n documentation of view objects.\n\n\nDictionary view objects\n=======================\n\nThe objects returned by ``dict.keys()``, ``dict.values()`` and\n``dict.items()`` are *view objects*. They provide a dynamic view on\nthe dictionary\'s entries, which means that when the dictionary\nchanges, the view reflects these changes.\n\nDictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data,\nand support membership tests:\n\nlen(dictview)\n\n Return the number of entries in the dictionary.\n\niter(dictview)\n\n Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as\n tuples of ``(key, value)``) in the dictionary.\n\n Keys and values are iterated over in an arbitrary order which is\n non-random, varies across Python implementations, and depends on\n the dictionary\'s history of insertions and deletions. If keys,\n values and items views are iterated over with no intervening\n modifications to the dictionary, the order of items will directly\n correspond. This allows the creation of ``(value, key)`` pairs\n using ``zip()``: ``pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())``. Another\n way to create the same list is ``pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in\n d.items()]``.\n\n Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary\n may raise a ``RuntimeError`` or fail to iterate over all entries.\n\nx in dictview\n\n Return ``True`` if *x* is in the underlying dictionary\'s keys,\n values or items (in the latter case, *x* should be a ``(key,\n value)`` tuple).\n\nKeys views are set-like since their entries are unique and hashable.\nIf all values are hashable, so that (key, value) pairs are unique and\nhashable, then the items view is also set-like. (Values views are not\ntreated as set-like since the entries are generally not unique.) Then\nthese set operations are available ("other" refers either to another\nview or a set):\n\ndictview & other\n\n Return the intersection of the dictview and the other object as a\n new set.\n\ndictview | other\n\n Return the union of the dictview and the other object as a new set.\n\ndictview - other\n\n Return the difference between the dictview and the other object\n (all elements in *dictview* that aren\'t in *other*) as a new set.\n\ndictview ^ other\n\n Return the symmetric difference (all elements either in *dictview*\n or *other*, but not in both) of the dictview and the other object\n as a new set.\n\nAn example of dictionary view usage:\n\n >>> dishes = {\'eggs\': 2, \'sausage\': 1, \'bacon\': 1, \'spam\': 500}\n >>> keys = dishes.keys()\n >>> values = dishes.values()\n\n >>> # iteration\n >>> n = 0\n >>> for val in values:\n ... n += val\n >>> print(n)\n 504\n\n >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order\n >>> list(keys)\n [\'eggs\', \'bacon\', \'sausage\', \'spam\']\n >>> list(values)\n [2, 1, 1, 500]\n\n >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes\n >>> del dishes[\'eggs\']\n >>> del dishes[\'sausage\']\n >>> list(keys)\n [\'spam\', \'bacon\']\n\n >>> # set operations\n >>> keys & {\'eggs\', \'bacon\', \'salad\'}\n {\'bacon\'}\n',
'typesmethods': "\nMethods\n*******\n\nMethods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.\nThere are two flavors: built-in methods (such as ``append()`` on\nlists) and class instance methods. Built-in methods are described\nwith the types that support them.\n\nIf you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace)\nthrough an instance, you get a special object: a *bound method* (also\ncalled *instance method*) object. When called, it will add the\n``self`` argument to the argument list. Bound methods have two\nspecial read-only attributes: ``m.__self__`` is the object on which\nthe method operates, and ``m.__func__`` is the function implementing\nthe method. Calling ``m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)`` is completely\nequivalent to calling ``m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2, ...,\narg-n)``.\n\nLike function objects, bound method objects support getting arbitrary\nattributes. However, since method attributes are actually stored on\nthe underlying function object (``meth.__func__``), setting method\nattributes on bound methods is disallowed. Attempting to set a method\nattribute results in a ``TypeError`` being raised. In order to set a\nmethod attribute, you need to explicitly set it on the underlying\nfunction object:\n\n class C:\n def method(self):\n pass\n\n c = C()\n c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is c'\n\nSee *The standard type hierarchy* for more information.\n",
'typesmodules': "\nModules\n*******\n\nThe only special operation on a module is attribute access:\n``m.name``, where *m* is a module and *name* accesses a name defined\nin *m*'s symbol table. Module attributes can be assigned to. (Note\nthat the ``import`` statement is not, strictly speaking, an operation\non a module object; ``import foo`` does not require a module object\nnamed *foo* to exist, rather it requires an (external) *definition*\nfor a module named *foo* somewhere.)\n\nA special member of every module is ``__dict__``. This is the\ndictionary containing the module's symbol table. Modifying this\ndictionary will actually change the module's symbol table, but direct\nassignment to the ``__dict__`` attribute is not possible (you can\nwrite ``m.__dict__['a'] = 1``, which defines ``m.a`` to be ``1``, but\nyou can't write ``m.__dict__ = {}``). Modifying ``__dict__`` directly\nis not recommended.\n\nModules built into the interpreter are written like this: ``<module\n'sys' (built-in)>``. If loaded from a file, they are written as\n``<module 'os' from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>``.\n",
'typesseq': '\nSequence Types --- ``str``, ``bytes``, ``bytearray``, ``list``, ``tuple``, ``range``\n************************************************************************************\n\nThere are six sequence types: strings, byte sequences (``bytes``\nobjects), byte arrays (``bytearray`` objects), lists, tuples, and\nrange objects. For other containers see the built in ``dict`` and\n``set`` classes, and the ``collections`` module.\n\nStrings contain Unicode characters. Their literals are written in\nsingle or double quotes: ``\'xyzzy\'``, ``"frobozz"``. See *String and\nBytes literals* for more about string literals. In addition to the\nfunctionality described here, there are also string-specific methods\ndescribed in the *String Methods* section.\n\nBytes and bytearray objects contain single bytes -- the former is\nimmutable while the latter is a mutable sequence. Bytes objects can\nbe constructed the constructor, ``bytes()``, and from literals; use a\n``b`` prefix with normal string syntax: ``b\'xyzzy\'``. To construct\nbyte arrays, use the ``bytearray()`` function.\n\nWarning: While string objects are sequences of characters (represented by\n strings of length 1), bytes and bytearray objects are sequences of\n *integers* (between 0 and 255), representing the ASCII value of\n single bytes. That means that for a bytes or bytearray object *b*,\n ``b[0]`` will be an integer, while ``b[0:1]`` will be a bytes or\n bytearray object of length 1. The representation of bytes objects\n uses the literal format (``b\'...\'``) since it is generally more\n useful than e.g. ``bytes([50, 19, 100])``. You can always convert a\n bytes object into a list of integers using ``list(b)``.Also, while\n in previous Python versions, byte strings and Unicode strings could\n be exchanged for each other rather freely (barring encoding issues),\n strings and bytes are now completely separate concepts. There\'s no\n implicit en-/decoding if you pass and object of the wrong type. A\n string always compares unequal to a bytes or bytearray object.\n\nLists are constructed with square brackets, separating items with\ncommas: ``[a, b, c]``. Tuples are constructed by the comma operator\n(not within square brackets), with or without enclosing parentheses,\nbut an empty tuple must have the enclosing parentheses, such as ``a,\nb, c`` or ``()``. A single item tuple must have a trailing comma,\nsuch as ``(d,)``.\n\nObjects of type range are created using the ``range()`` function.\nThey don\'t support slicing, concatenation or repetition, and using\n``in``, ``not in``, ``min()`` or ``max()`` on them is inefficient.\n\nMost sequence types support the following operations. The ``in`` and\n``not in`` operations have the same priorities as the comparison\noperations. The ``+`` and ``*`` operations have the same priority as\nthe corresponding numeric operations. [3] Additional methods are\nprovided for *Mutable Sequence Types*.\n\nThis table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority\n(operations in the same box have the same priority). In the table,\n*s* and *t* are sequences of the same type; *n*, *i* and *j* are\nintegers:\n\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| Operation | Result | Notes |\n+====================+==================================+============+\n| ``x in s`` | ``True`` if an item of *s* is | (1) |\n| | equal to *x*, else ``False`` | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``x not in s`` | ``False`` if an item of *s* is | (1) |\n| | equal to *x*, else ``True`` | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``s + t`` | the concatenation of *s* and *t* | (6) |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``s * n, n * s`` | *n* shallow copies of *s* | (2) |\n| | concatenated | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``s[i]`` | *i*\'th item of *s*, origin 0 | (3) |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``s[i:j]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(4) |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``s[i:j:k]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(5) |\n| | with step *k* | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``len(s)`` | length of *s* | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``min(s)`` | smallest item of *s* | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n| ``max(s)`` | largest item of *s* | |\n+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+\n\nSequence types also support comparisons. In particular, tuples and\nlists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding\nelements. This means that to compare equal, every element must\ncompare equal and the two sequences must be of the same type and have\nthe same length. (For full details see *Comparisons* in the language\nreference.)\n\nNotes:\n\n1. When *s* is a string object, the ``in`` and ``not in`` operations\n act like a substring test.\n\n2. Values of *n* less than ``0`` are treated as ``0`` (which yields an\n empty sequence of the same type as *s*). Note also that the copies\n are shallow; nested structures are not copied. This often haunts\n new Python programmers; consider:\n\n >>> lists = [[]] * 3\n >>> lists\n [[], [], []]\n >>> lists[0].append(3)\n >>> lists\n [[3], [3], [3]]\n\n What has happened is that ``[[]]`` is a one-element list containing\n an empty list, so all three elements of ``[[]] * 3`` are (pointers\n to) this single empty list. Modifying any of the elements of\n ``lists`` modifies this single list. You can create a list of\n different lists this way:\n\n >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]\n >>> lists[0].append(3)\n >>> lists[1].append(5)\n >>> lists[2].append(7)\n >>> lists\n [[3], [5], [7]]\n\n3. If *i* or *j* is negative, the index is relative to the end of the\n string: ``len(s) + i`` or ``len(s) + j`` is substituted. But note\n that ``-0`` is still ``0``.\n\n4. The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is defined as the sequence of\n items with index *k* such that ``i <= k < j``. If *i* or *j* is\n greater than ``len(s)``, use ``len(s)``. If *i* is omitted or\n ``None``, use ``0``. If *j* is omitted or ``None``, use\n ``len(s)``. If *i* is greater than or equal to *j*, the slice is\n empty.\n\n5. The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* with step *k* is defined as the\n sequence of items with index ``x = i + n*k`` such that ``0 <= n <\n (j-i)/k``. In other words, the indices are ``i``, ``i+k``,\n ``i+2*k``, ``i+3*k`` and so on, stopping when *j* is reached (but\n never including *j*). If *i* or *j* is greater than ``len(s)``,\n use ``len(s)``. If *i* or *j* are omitted or ``None``, they become\n "end" values (which end depends on the sign of *k*). Note, *k*\n cannot be zero. If *k* is ``None``, it is treated like ``1``.\n\n6. If *s* and *t* are both strings, some Python implementations such\n as CPython can usually perform an in-place optimization for\n assignments of the form ``s=s+t`` or ``s+=t``. When applicable,\n this optimization makes quadratic run-time much less likely. This\n optimization is both version and implementation dependent. For\n performance sensitive code, it is preferable to use the\n ``str.join()`` method which assures consistent linear concatenation\n performance across versions and implementations.\n\n\nString Methods\n==============\n\nString objects support the methods listed below. Note that none of\nthese methods take keyword arguments.\n\nIn addition, Python\'s strings support the sequence type methods\ndescribed in the *Sequence Types --- str, bytes, bytearray, list,\ntuple, range* section. To output formatted strings, see the *String\nFormatting* section. Also, see the ``re`` module for string functions\nbased on regular expressions.\n\nstr.capitalize()\n\n Return a copy of the string with only its first character\n capitalized.\n\nstr.center(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return centered in a string of length *width*. Padding is done\n using the specified *fillchar* (default is a space).\n\nstr.count(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring *sub*\n in the range [*start*, *end*]. Optional arguments *start* and\n *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.\n\nstr.encode([encoding[, errors]])\n\n Return an encoded version of the string as a bytes object. Default\n encoding is the current default string encoding. *errors* may be\n given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for\n *errors* is ``\'strict\'``, meaning that encoding errors raise a\n ``UnicodeError``. Other possible values are ``\'ignore\'``,\n ``\'replace\'``, ``\'xmlcharrefreplace\'``, ``\'backslashreplace\'`` and\n any other name registered via ``codecs.register_error()``, see\n section *Codec Base Classes*. For a list of possible encodings, see\n section *Standard Encodings*.\n\nstr.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])\n\n Return ``True`` if the string ends with the specified *suffix*,\n otherwise return ``False``. *suffix* can also be a tuple of\n suffixes to look for. With optional *start*, test beginning at\n that position. With optional *end*, stop comparing at that\n position.\n\nstr.expandtabs([tabsize])\n\n Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced\n by one or more spaces, depending on the current column and the\n given tab size. The column number is reset to zero after each\n newline occurring in the string. If *tabsize* is not given, a tab\n size of ``8`` characters is assumed. This doesn\'t understand other\n non-printing characters or escape sequences.\n\nstr.find(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the lowest index in the string where substring *sub* is\n found, such that *sub* is contained in the range [*start*, *end*].\n Optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice\n notation. Return ``-1`` if *sub* is not found.\n\nstr.format(*args, **kwargs)\n\n Perform a string formatting operation. The *format_string*\n argument can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited\n by braces ``{}``. Each replacement field contains either the\n numeric index of a positional argument, or the name of a keyword\n argument. Returns a copy of *format_string* where each replacement\n field is replaced with the string value of the corresponding\n argument.\n\n >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)\n \'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3\'\n\n See *Format String Syntax* for a description of the various\n formatting options that can be specified in format strings.\n\nstr.index(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Like ``find()``, but raise ``ValueError`` when the substring is not\n found.\n\nstr.isalnum()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and\n there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isalpha()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and\n there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isdecimal()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are decimal characters\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Decimal\n characters include digit characters, and all characters that that\n can be used to form decimal-radix numbers, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-\n INDIC DIGIT ZERO.\n\nstr.isdigit()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are digits and there is\n at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isidentifier()\n\n Return true if the string is a valid identifier according to the\n language definition, section *Identifiers and keywords*.\n\nstr.islower()\n\n Return true if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and\n there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.isnumeric()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are numeric characters,\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Numeric\n characters include digit characters, and all characters that have\n the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION\n ONE FIFTH.\n\nstr.isprintable()\n\n Return true if all characters in the string are printable or the\n string is empty, false otherwise. Nonprintable characters are\n those characters defined in the Unicode character database as\n "Other" or "Separator", excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is\n considered printable. (Note that printable characters in this\n context are those which should not be escaped when ``repr()`` is\n invoked on a string. It has no bearing on the handling of strings\n written to ``sys.stdout`` or ``sys.stderr``.)\n\nstr.isspace()\n\n Return true if there are only whitespace characters in the string\n and there is at least one character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.istitle()\n\n Return true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at\n least one character, for example uppercase characters may only\n follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones.\n Return false otherwise.\n\nstr.isupper()\n\n Return true if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and\n there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.\n\nstr.join(seq)\n\n Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in the\n sequence *seq*. A ``TypeError`` will be raised if there are any\n non-string values in *seq*, including ``bytes`` objects. The\n separator between elements is the string providing this method.\n\nstr.ljust(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return the string left justified in a string of length *width*.\n Padding is done using the specified *fillchar* (default is a\n space). The original string is returned if *width* is less than\n ``len(s)``.\n\nstr.lower()\n\n Return a copy of the string converted to lowercase.\n\nstr.lstrip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed. The\n *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be\n removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to\n removing whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a prefix; rather,\n all combinations of its values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.lstrip()\n \'spacious \'\n >>> \'www.example.com\'.lstrip(\'cmowz.\')\n \'example.com\'\n\nstatic str.maketrans(x[, y[, z]])\n\n This static method returns a translation table usable for\n ``str.translate()``.\n\n If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping\n Unicode ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to\n Unicode ordinals, strings (of arbitrary lengths) or None.\n Character keys will then be converted to ordinals.\n\n If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length,\n and in the resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped\n to the character at the same position in y. If there is a third\n argument, it must be a string, whose characters will be mapped to\n None in the result.\n\nstr.partition(sep)\n\n Split the string at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a\n 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator\n itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not\n found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by\n two empty strings.\n\nstr.replace(old, new[, count])\n\n Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring *old*\n replaced by *new*. If the optional argument *count* is given, only\n the first *count* occurrences are replaced.\n\nstr.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Return the highest index in the string where substring *sub* is\n found, such that *sub* is contained within s[start,end]. Optional\n arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation.\n Return ``-1`` on failure.\n\nstr.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])\n\n Like ``rfind()`` but raises ``ValueError`` when the substring *sub*\n is not found.\n\nstr.rjust(width[, fillchar])\n\n Return the string right justified in a string of length *width*.\n Padding is done using the specified *fillchar* (default is a\n space). The original string is returned if *width* is less than\n ``len(s)``.\n\nstr.rpartition(sep)\n\n Split the string at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a\n 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator\n itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not\n found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by\n the string itself.\n\nstr.rsplit([sep[, maxsplit]])\n\n Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the\n delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits\n are done, the *rightmost* ones. If *sep* is not specified or\n ``None``, any whitespace string is a separator. Except for\n splitting from the right, ``rsplit()`` behaves like ``split()``\n which is described in detail below.\n\nstr.rstrip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. The\n *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be\n removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to\n removing whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a suffix; rather,\n all combinations of its values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.rstrip()\n \' spacious\'\n >>> \'mississippi\'.rstrip(\'ipz\')\n \'mississ\'\n\nstr.split([sep[, maxsplit]])\n\n Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the\n delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit*\n splits are done (thus, the list will have at most ``maxsplit+1``\n elements). If *maxsplit* is not specified, then there is no limit\n on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).\n\n If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together\n and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,\n ``\'1,,2\'.split(\',\')`` returns ``[\'1\', \'\', \'2\']``). The *sep*\n argument may consist of multiple characters (for example,\n ``\'1<>2<>3\'.split(\'<>\')`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2\', \'3\']``). Splitting\n an empty string with a specified separator returns ``[\'\']``.\n\n If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting\n algorithm is applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded\n as a single separator, and the result will contain no empty strings\n at the start or end if the string has leading or trailing\n whitespace. Consequently, splitting an empty string or a string\n consisting of just whitespace with a ``None`` separator returns\n ``[]``.\n\n For example, ``\' 1 2 3 \'.split()`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2\', \'3\']``,\n and ``\' 1 2 3 \'.split(None, 1)`` returns ``[\'1\', \'2 3 \']``.\n\nstr.splitlines([keepends])\n\n Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line\n boundaries. Line breaks are not included in the resulting list\n unless *keepends* is given and true.\n\nstr.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])\n\n Return ``True`` if string starts with the *prefix*, otherwise\n return ``False``. *prefix* can also be a tuple of prefixes to look\n for. With optional *start*, test string beginning at that\n position. With optional *end*, stop comparing string at that\n position.\n\nstr.strip([chars])\n\n Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing\n characters removed. The *chars* argument is a string specifying the\n set of characters to be removed. If omitted or ``None``, the\n *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace. The *chars*\n argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its\n values are stripped:\n\n >>> \' spacious \'.strip()\n \'spacious\'\n >>> \'www.example.com\'.strip(\'cmowz.\')\n \'example\'\n\nstr.swapcase()\n\n Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to\n lowercase and vice versa.\n\nstr.title()\n\n Return a titlecased version of the string: words start with\n uppercase characters, all remaining cased characters are lowercase.\n\nstr.translate(map)\n\n Return a copy of the *s* where all characters have been mapped\n through the *map* which must be a dictionary of Unicode ordinals\n (integers) to Unicode ordinals, strings or ``None``. Unmapped\n characters are left untouched. Characters mapped to ``None`` are\n deleted.\n\n You can use ``str.maketrans()`` to create a translation map from\n character-to-character mappings in different formats.\n\n Note: An even more flexible approach is to create a custom character\n mapping codec using the ``codecs`` module (see\n ``encodings.cp1251`` for an example).\n\nstr.upper()\n\n Return a copy of the string converted to uppercase.\n\nstr.zfill(width)\n\n Return the numeric string left filled with zeros in a string of\n length *width*. A sign prefix is handled correctly. The original\n string is returned if *width* is less than ``len(s)``.\n\n\nOld String Formatting Operations\n================================\n\nNote: The formatting operations described here are obsolete and may go\n away in future versions of Python. Use the new *String Formatting*\n in new code.\n\nString objects have one unique built-in operation: the ``%`` operator\n(modulo). This is also known as the string *formatting* or\n*interpolation* operator. Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is\na string), ``%`` conversion specifications in *format* are replaced\nwith zero or more elements of *values*. The effect is similar to the\nusing ``sprintf()`` in the C language.\n\nIf *format* requires a single argument, *values* may be a single non-\ntuple object. [4] Otherwise, *values* must be a tuple with exactly\nthe number of items specified by the format string, or a single\nmapping object (for example, a dictionary).\n\nA conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the\nfollowing components, which must occur in this order:\n\n1. The ``\'%\'`` character, which marks the start of the specifier.\n\n2. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of\n characters (for example, ``(somename)``).\n\n3. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some\n conversion types.\n\n4. Minimum field width (optional). If specified as an ``\'*\'``\n (asterisk), the actual width is read from the next element of the\n tuple in *values*, and the object to convert comes after the\n minimum field width and optional precision.\n\n5. Precision (optional), given as a ``\'.\'`` (dot) followed by the\n precision. If specified as ``\'*\'`` (an asterisk), the actual width\n is read from the next element of the tuple in *values*, and the\n value to convert comes after the precision.\n\n6. Length modifier (optional).\n\n7. Conversion type.\n\nWhen the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then\nthe formats in the string *must* include a parenthesised mapping key\ninto that dictionary inserted immediately after the ``\'%\'`` character.\nThe mapping key selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.\nFor example:\n\n>>> print(\'%(language)s has %(#)03d quote types.\' % \\\n... {\'language\': "Python", "#": 2})\nPython has 002 quote types.\n\nIn this case no ``*`` specifiers may occur in a format (since they\nrequire a sequential parameter list).\n\nThe conversion flag characters are:\n\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n| Flag | Meaning |\n+===========+=======================================================================+\n| ``\'#\'`` | The value conversion will use the "alternate form" (where defined |\n| | below). |\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n| ``\'0\'`` | The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values. |\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n| ``\'-\'`` | The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ``\'0\'`` |\n| | conversion if both are given). |\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n| ``\' \'`` | (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty |\n| | string) produced by a signed conversion. |\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n| ``\'+\'`` | A sign character (``\'+\'`` or ``\'-\'``) will precede the conversion |\n| | (overrides a "space" flag). |\n+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+\n\nA length modifier (``h``, ``l``, or ``L``) may be present, but is\nignored as it is not necessary for Python -- so e.g. ``%ld`` is\nidentical to ``%d``.\n\nThe conversion types are:\n\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| Conversion | Meaning | Notes |\n+==============+=======================================================+=========+\n| ``\'d\'`` | Signed integer decimal. | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'i\'`` | Signed integer decimal. | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'o\'`` | Signed octal value. | (1) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'u\'`` | Obsolete type -- it is identical to ``\'d\'``. | (7) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'x\'`` | Signed hexadecimal (lowercase). | (2) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'X\'`` | Signed hexadecimal (uppercase). | (2) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'e\'`` | Floating point exponential format (lowercase). | (3) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'E\'`` | Floating point exponential format (uppercase). | (3) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'f\'`` | Floating point decimal format. | (3) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'F\'`` | Floating point decimal format. | (3) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'g\'`` | Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential | (4) |\n| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |\n| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'G\'`` | Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential | (4) |\n| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |\n| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'c\'`` | Single character (accepts integer or single character | |\n| | string). | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'r\'`` | String (converts any python object using ``repr()``). | (5) |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'s\'`` | String (converts any python object using ``str()``). | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n| ``\'%\'`` | No argument is converted, results in a ``\'%\'`` | |\n| | character in the result. | |\n+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+---------+\n\nNotes:\n\n1. The alternate form causes a leading zero (``\'0\'``) to be inserted\n between left-hand padding and the formatting of the number if the\n leading character of the result is not already a zero.\n\n2. The alternate form causes a leading ``\'0x\'`` or ``\'0X\'`` (depending\n on whether the ``\'x\'`` or ``\'X\'`` format was used) to be inserted\n between left-hand padding and the formatting of the number if the\n leading character of the result is not already a zero.\n\n3. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal\n point, even if no digits follow it.\n\n The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal\n point and defaults to 6.\n\n4. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal\n point, and trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise\n be.\n\n The precision determines the number of significant digits before\n and after the decimal point and defaults to 6.\n\n5. The precision determines the maximal number of characters used.\n\n1. See **PEP 237**.\n\nSince Python strings have an explicit length, ``%s`` conversions do\nnot assume that ``\'\\0\'`` is the end of the string.\n\nChanged in version 3.1: ``%f`` conversions for numbers whose absolute\nvalue is over 1e50 are no longer replaced by ``%g`` conversions.\n\nAdditional string operations are defined in standard modules\n``string`` and ``re``.\n\n\nRange Type\n==========\n\nThe ``range`` type is an immutable sequence which is commonly used for\nlooping. The advantage of the ``range`` type is that an ``range``\nobject will always take the same amount of memory, no matter the size\nof the range it represents. There are no consistent performance\nadvantages.\n\nRange objects have very little behavior: they only support indexing,\niteration, and the ``len()`` function.\n\n\nMutable Sequence Types\n======================\n\nList and bytearray objects support additional operations that allow\nin-place modification of the object. Other mutable sequence types\n(when added to the language) should also support these operations.\nStrings and tuples are immutable sequence types: such objects cannot\nbe modified once created. The following operations are defined on\nmutable sequence types (where *x* is an arbitrary object).\n\nNote that while lists allow their items to be of any type, bytearray\nobject "items" are all integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.\n\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| Operation | Result | Notes |\n+================================+==================================+=======================+\n| ``s[i] = x`` | item *i* of *s* is replaced by | |\n| | *x* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s[i:j] = t`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is | |\n| | replaced by the contents of the | |\n| | iterable *t* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``del s[i:j]`` | same as ``s[i:j] = []`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s[i:j:k] = t`` | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]`` are | (1) |\n| | replaced by those of *t* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``del s[i:j:k]`` | removes the elements of | |\n| | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.append(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = | |\n| | [x]`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.extend(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = x`` | (2) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.count(x)`` | return number of *i*\'s for which | |\n| | ``s[i] == x`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | return smallest *k* such that | (3) |\n| | ``s[k] == x`` and ``i <= k < j`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.insert(i, x)`` | same as ``s[i:i] = [x]`` | (4) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.pop([i])`` | same as ``x = s[i]; del s[i]; | (5) |\n| | return x`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.remove(x)`` | same as ``del s[s.index(x)]`` | (3) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.reverse()`` | reverses the items of *s* in | (6) |\n| | place | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.sort([key[, reverse]])`` | sort the items of *s* in place | (6), (7), (8) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n\nNotes:\n\n1. *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.\n\n2. *x* can be any iterable object.\n\n3. Raises ``ValueError`` when *x* is not found in *s*. When a negative\n index is passed as the second or third parameter to the ``index()``\n method, the sequence length is added, as for slice indices. If it\n is still negative, it is truncated to zero, as for slice indices.\n\n4. When a negative index is passed as the first parameter to the\n ``insert()`` method, the sequence length is added, as for slice\n indices. If it is still negative, it is truncated to zero, as for\n slice indices.\n\n5. The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default\n the last item is removed and returned.\n\n6. The ``sort()`` and ``reverse()`` methods modify the sequence in\n place for economy of space when sorting or reversing a large\n sequence. To remind you that they operate by side effect, they\n don\'t return the sorted or reversed sequence.\n\n7. The ``sort()`` method takes optional arguments for controlling the\n comparisons. Each must be specified as a keyword argument.\n\n *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract\n a comparison key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``. The\n default value is ``None``.\n\n *reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list\n elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.\n\n The ``sort()`` method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable\n if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that\n compare equal --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes\n (for example, sort by department, then by salary grade).\n\n While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate,\n or even inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation makes\n the list appear empty for the duration, and raises ``ValueError``\n if it can detect that the list has been mutated during a sort.\n\n8. ``sort()`` is not supported by ``bytearray`` objects.\n\n\nBytes and Byte Array Methods\n============================\n\nBytes and bytearray objects, being "strings of bytes", have all\nmethods found on strings, with the exception of ``encode()``,\n``format()`` and ``isidentifier()``, which do not make sense with\nthese types. For converting the objects to strings, they have a\n``decode()`` method.\n\nWherever one of these methods needs to interpret the bytes as\ncharacters (e.g. the ``is...()`` methods), the ASCII character set is\nassumed.\n\nNote: The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don\'t accept strings as\n their arguments, just as the methods on strings don\'t accept bytes\n as their arguments. For example, you have to write\n\n a = "abc"\n b = a.replace("a", "f")\n\n and\n\n a = b"abc"\n b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")\n\nbytes.decode([encoding[, errors]])\nbytearray.decode([encoding[, errors]])\n\n Return a string decoded from the given bytes. Default encoding is\n the current default string encoding. *errors* may be given to set\n a different error handling scheme. The default for *errors* is\n ``\'strict\'``, meaning that encoding errors raise a\n ``UnicodeError``. Other possible values are ``\'ignore\'``,\n ``\'replace\'`` and any other name registered via\n ``codecs.register_error()``, see section *Codec Base Classes*. For\n a list of possible encodings, see section *Standard Encodings*.\n\nThe bytes and bytearray types have an additional class method:\n\nclassmethod bytes.fromhex(string)\nclassmethod bytearray.fromhex(string)\n\n This ``bytes`` class method returns a bytes or bytearray object,\n decoding the given string object. The string must contain two\n hexadecimal digits per byte, spaces are ignored.\n\n >>> bytes.fromhex(\'f0 f1f2 \')\n b\'\\xf0\\xf1\\xf2\'\n\nThe maketrans and translate methods differ in semantics from the\nversions available on strings:\n\nbytes.translate(table[, delete])\nbytearray.translate(table[, delete])\n\n Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes\n occurring in the optional argument *delete* are removed, and the\n remaining bytes have been mapped through the given translation\n table, which must be a bytes object of length 256.\n\n You can use the ``bytes.maketrans()`` method to create a\n translation table.\n\n Set the *table* argument to ``None`` for translations that only\n delete characters:\n\n >>> b\'read this short text\'.translate(None, b\'aeiou\')\n b\'rd ths shrt txt\'\n\nstatic bytes.maketrans(from, to)\nstatic bytearray.maketrans(from, to)\n\n This static method returns a translation table usable for\n ``bytes.translate()`` that will map each character in *from* into\n the character at the same position in *to*; *from* and *to* must be\n bytes objects and have the same length.\n\n New in version 3.1.\n',
'typesseq-mutable': '\nMutable Sequence Types\n**********************\n\nList and bytearray objects support additional operations that allow\nin-place modification of the object. Other mutable sequence types\n(when added to the language) should also support these operations.\nStrings and tuples are immutable sequence types: such objects cannot\nbe modified once created. The following operations are defined on\nmutable sequence types (where *x* is an arbitrary object).\n\nNote that while lists allow their items to be of any type, bytearray\nobject "items" are all integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.\n\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| Operation | Result | Notes |\n+================================+==================================+=======================+\n| ``s[i] = x`` | item *i* of *s* is replaced by | |\n| | *x* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s[i:j] = t`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is | |\n| | replaced by the contents of the | |\n| | iterable *t* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``del s[i:j]`` | same as ``s[i:j] = []`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s[i:j:k] = t`` | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]`` are | (1) |\n| | replaced by those of *t* | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``del s[i:j:k]`` | removes the elements of | |\n| | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.append(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = | |\n| | [x]`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.extend(x)`` | same as ``s[len(s):len(s)] = x`` | (2) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.count(x)`` | return number of *i*\'s for which | |\n| | ``s[i] == x`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | return smallest *k* such that | (3) |\n| | ``s[k] == x`` and ``i <= k < j`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.insert(i, x)`` | same as ``s[i:i] = [x]`` | (4) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.pop([i])`` | same as ``x = s[i]; del s[i]; | (5) |\n| | return x`` | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.remove(x)`` | same as ``del s[s.index(x)]`` | (3) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.reverse()`` | reverses the items of *s* in | (6) |\n| | place | |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n| ``s.sort([key[, reverse]])`` | sort the items of *s* in place | (6), (7), (8) |\n+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------+\n\nNotes:\n\n1. *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.\n\n2. *x* can be any iterable object.\n\n3. Raises ``ValueError`` when *x* is not found in *s*. When a negative\n index is passed as the second or third parameter to the ``index()``\n method, the sequence length is added, as for slice indices. If it\n is still negative, it is truncated to zero, as for slice indices.\n\n4. When a negative index is passed as the first parameter to the\n ``insert()`` method, the sequence length is added, as for slice\n indices. If it is still negative, it is truncated to zero, as for\n slice indices.\n\n5. The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default\n the last item is removed and returned.\n\n6. The ``sort()`` and ``reverse()`` methods modify the sequence in\n place for economy of space when sorting or reversing a large\n sequence. To remind you that they operate by side effect, they\n don\'t return the sorted or reversed sequence.\n\n7. The ``sort()`` method takes optional arguments for controlling the\n comparisons. Each must be specified as a keyword argument.\n\n *key* specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract\n a comparison key from each list element: ``key=str.lower``. The\n default value is ``None``.\n\n *reverse* is a boolean value. If set to ``True``, then the list\n elements are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.\n\n The ``sort()`` method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable\n if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that\n compare equal --- this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes\n (for example, sort by department, then by salary grade).\n\n While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate,\n or even inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation makes\n the list appear empty for the duration, and raises ``ValueError``\n if it can detect that the list has been mutated during a sort.\n\n8. ``sort()`` is not supported by ``bytearray`` objects.\n',
'unary': '\nUnary arithmetic and bitwise operations\n***************************************\n\nAll unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:\n\n u_expr ::= power | "-" u_expr | "+" u_expr | "~" u_expr\n\nThe unary ``-`` (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric\nargument.\n\nThe unary ``+`` (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged.\n\nThe unary ``~`` (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its\ninteger argument. The bitwise inversion of ``x`` is defined as\n``-(x+1)``. It only applies to integral numbers.\n\nIn all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a\n``TypeError`` exception is raised.\n',
'while': '\nThe ``while`` statement\n***********************\n\nThe ``while`` statement is used for repeated execution as long as an\nexpression is true:\n\n while_stmt ::= "while" expression ":" suite\n ["else" ":" suite]\n\nThis repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the\nfirst suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time\nit is tested) the suite of the ``else`` clause, if present, is\nexecuted and the loop terminates.\n\nA ``break`` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop\nwithout executing the ``else`` clause\'s suite. A ``continue``\nstatement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and\ngoes back to testing the expression.\n',
'with': '\nThe ``with`` statement\n**********************\n\nThe ``with`` statement is used to wrap the execution of a block with\nmethods defined by a context manager (see section *With Statement\nContext Managers*). This allows common\n``try``...``except``...``finally`` usage patterns to be encapsulated\nfor convenient reuse.\n\n with_stmt ::= "with" with_item ("," with_item)* ":" suite\n with_item ::= expression ["as" target]\n\nThe execution of the ``with`` statement with one "item" proceeds as\nfollows:\n\n1. The context expression is evaluated to obtain a context manager.\n\n2. The context manager\'s ``__enter__()`` method is invoked.\n\n3. If a target was included in the ``with`` statement, the return\n value from ``__enter__()`` is assigned to it.\n\n Note: The ``with`` statement guarantees that if the ``__enter__()``\n method returns without an error, then ``__exit__()`` will always\n be called. Thus, if an error occurs during the assignment to the\n target list, it will be treated the same as an error occurring\n within the suite would be. See step 5 below.\n\n4. The suite is executed.\n\n5. The context manager\'s ``__exit__()`` method is invoked. If an\n exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and\n traceback are passed as arguments to ``__exit__()``. Otherwise,\n three ``None`` arguments are supplied.\n\n If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value\n from the ``__exit__()`` method was false, the exception is\n reraised. If the return value was true, the exception is\n suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following\n the ``with`` statement.\n\n If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the\n return value from ``__exit__()`` is ignored, and execution proceeds\n at the normal location for the kind of exit that was taken.\n\nWith more than one item, the context managers are processed as if\nmultiple ``with`` statements were nested:\n\n with A() as a, B() as b:\n suite\n\nis equivalent to\n\n with A() as a:\n with B() as b:\n suite\n\nChanged in version 3.1: Support for multiple context expressions.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 0343** - The "with" statement\n The specification, background, and examples for the Python\n ``with`` statement.\n',
'yield': '\nThe ``yield`` statement\n***********************\n\n yield_stmt ::= yield_expression\n\nThe ``yield`` statement is only used when defining a generator\nfunction, and is only used in the body of the generator function.\nUsing a ``yield`` statement in a function definition is sufficient to\ncause that definition to create a generator function instead of a\nnormal function. When a generator function is called, it returns an\niterator known as a generator iterator, or more commonly, a generator.\nThe body of the generator function is executed by calling the\n``next()`` function on the generator repeatedly until it raises an\nexception.\n\nWhen a ``yield`` statement is executed, the state of the generator is\nfrozen and the value of **expression_list** is returned to\n``next()``\'s caller. By "frozen" we mean that all local state is\nretained, including the current bindings of local variables, the\ninstruction pointer, and the internal evaluation stack: enough\ninformation is saved so that the next time ``next()`` is invoked, the\nfunction can proceed exactly as if the ``yield`` statement were just\nanother external call.\n\nThe ``yield`` statement is allowed in the ``try`` clause of a ``try``\n... ``finally`` construct. If the generator is not resumed before it\nis finalized (by reaching a zero reference count or by being garbage\ncollected), the generator-iterator\'s ``close()`` method will be\ncalled, allowing any pending ``finally`` clauses to execute.\n\nSee also:\n\n **PEP 0255** - Simple Generators\n The proposal for adding generators and the ``yield`` statement\n to Python.\n\n **PEP 0342** - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators\n The proposal that, among other generator enhancements, proposed\n allowing ``yield`` to appear inside a ``try`` ... ``finally``\n block.\n'}