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diff --git a/libtommath/bn.tex b/libtommath/bn.tex deleted file mode 100644 index e8eb994..0000000 --- a/libtommath/bn.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1835 +0,0 @@ -\documentclass[b5paper]{book} -\usepackage{hyperref} -\usepackage{makeidx} -\usepackage{amssymb} -\usepackage{color} -\usepackage{alltt} -\usepackage{graphicx} -\usepackage{layout} -\def\union{\cup} -\def\intersect{\cap} -\def\getsrandom{\stackrel{\rm R}{\gets}} -\def\cross{\times} -\def\cat{\hspace{0.5em} \| \hspace{0.5em}} -\def\catn{$\|$} -\def\divides{\hspace{0.3em} | \hspace{0.3em}} -\def\nequiv{\not\equiv} -\def\approx{\raisebox{0.2ex}{\mbox{\small $\sim$}}} -\def\lcm{{\rm lcm}} -\def\gcd{{\rm gcd}} -\def\log{{\rm log}} -\def\ord{{\rm ord}} -\def\abs{{\mathit abs}} -\def\rep{{\mathit rep}} -\def\mod{{\mathit\ mod\ }} -\renewcommand{\pmod}[1]{\ ({\rm mod\ }{#1})} -\newcommand{\floor}[1]{\left\lfloor{#1}\right\rfloor} -\newcommand{\ceil}[1]{\left\lceil{#1}\right\rceil} -\def\Or{{\rm\ or\ }} -\def\And{{\rm\ and\ }} -\def\iff{\hspace{1em}\Longleftrightarrow\hspace{1em}} -\def\implies{\Rightarrow} -\def\undefined{{\rm ``undefined"}} -\def\Proof{\vspace{1ex}\noindent {\bf Proof:}\hspace{1em}} -\let\oldphi\phi -\def\phi{\varphi} -\def\Pr{{\rm Pr}} -\newcommand{\str}[1]{{\mathbf{#1}}} -\def\F{{\mathbb F}} -\def\N{{\mathbb N}} -\def\Z{{\mathbb Z}} -\def\R{{\mathbb R}} -\def\C{{\mathbb C}} -\def\Q{{\mathbb Q}} -\definecolor{DGray}{gray}{0.5} -\newcommand{\emailaddr}[1]{\mbox{$<${#1}$>$}} -\def\twiddle{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\mbox{\tiny $\sim$}}} -\def\gap{\vspace{0.5ex}} -\makeindex -\begin{document} -\frontmatter -\pagestyle{empty} -\title{LibTomMath User Manual \\ v0.39} -\author{Tom St Denis \\ tomstdenis@iahu.ca} -\maketitle -This text, the library and the accompanying textbook are all hereby placed in the public domain. This book has been -formatted for B5 [176x250] paper using the \LaTeX{} {\em book} macro package. - -\vspace{10cm} - -\begin{flushright}Open Source. Open Academia. Open Minds. - -\mbox{ } - -Tom St Denis, - -Ontario, Canada -\end{flushright} - -\tableofcontents -\listoffigures -\mainmatter -\pagestyle{headings} -\chapter{Introduction} -\section{What is LibTomMath?} -LibTomMath is a library of source code which provides a series of efficient and carefully written functions for manipulating -large integer numbers. It was written in portable ISO C source code so that it will build on any platform with a conforming -C compiler. - -In a nutshell the library was written from scratch with verbose comments to help instruct computer science students how -to implement ``bignum'' math. However, the resulting code has proven to be very useful. It has been used by numerous -universities, commercial and open source software developers. It has been used on a variety of platforms ranging from -Linux and Windows based x86 to ARM based Gameboys and PPC based MacOS machines. - -\section{License} -As of the v0.25 the library source code has been placed in the public domain with every new release. As of the v0.28 -release the textbook ``Implementing Multiple Precision Arithmetic'' has been placed in the public domain with every new -release as well. This textbook is meant to compliment the project by providing a more solid walkthrough of the development -algorithms used in the library. - -Since both\footnote{Note that the MPI files under mtest/ are copyrighted by Michael Fromberger. They are not required to use LibTomMath.} are in the -public domain everyone is entitled to do with them as they see fit. - -\section{Building LibTomMath} - -LibTomMath is meant to be very ``GCC friendly'' as it comes with a makefile well suited for GCC. However, the library will -also build in MSVC, Borland C out of the box. For any other ISO C compiler a makefile will have to be made by the end -developer. - -\subsection{Static Libraries} -To build as a static library for GCC issue the following -\begin{alltt} -make -\end{alltt} - -command. This will build the library and archive the object files in ``libtommath.a''. Now you link against -that and include ``tommath.h'' within your programs. Alternatively to build with MSVC issue the following -\begin{alltt} -nmake -f makefile.msvc -\end{alltt} - -This will build the library and archive the object files in ``tommath.lib''. This has been tested with MSVC -version 6.00 with service pack 5. - -\subsection{Shared Libraries} -To build as a shared library for GCC issue the following -\begin{alltt} -make -f makefile.shared -\end{alltt} -This requires the ``libtool'' package (common on most Linux/BSD systems). It will build LibTomMath as both shared -and static then install (by default) into /usr/lib as well as install the header files in /usr/include. The shared -library (resource) will be called ``libtommath.la'' while the static library called ``libtommath.a''. Generally -you use libtool to link your application against the shared object. - -There is limited support for making a ``DLL'' in windows via the ``makefile.cygwin\_dll'' makefile. It requires -Cygwin to work with since it requires the auto-export/import functionality. The resulting DLL and import library -``libtommath.dll.a'' can be used to link LibTomMath dynamically to any Windows program using Cygwin. - -\subsection{Testing} -To build the library and the test harness type - -\begin{alltt} -make test -\end{alltt} - -This will build the library, ``test'' and ``mtest/mtest''. The ``test'' program will accept test vectors and verify the -results. ``mtest/mtest'' will generate test vectors using the MPI library by Michael Fromberger\footnote{A copy of MPI -is included in the package}. Simply pipe mtest into test using - -\begin{alltt} -mtest/mtest | test -\end{alltt} - -If you do not have a ``/dev/urandom'' style RNG source you will have to write your own PRNG and simply pipe that into -mtest. For example, if your PRNG program is called ``myprng'' simply invoke - -\begin{alltt} -myprng | mtest/mtest | test -\end{alltt} - -This will output a row of numbers that are increasing. Each column is a different test (such as addition, multiplication, etc) -that is being performed. The numbers represent how many times the test was invoked. If an error is detected the program -will exit with a dump of the relevent numbers it was working with. - -\section{Build Configuration} -LibTomMath can configured at build time in three phases we shall call ``depends'', ``tweaks'' and ``trims''. -Each phase changes how the library is built and they are applied one after another respectively. - -To make the system more powerful you can tweak the build process. Classes are defined in the file -``tommath\_superclass.h''. By default, the symbol ``LTM\_ALL'' shall be defined which simply -instructs the system to build all of the functions. This is how LibTomMath used to be packaged. This will give you -access to every function LibTomMath offers. - -However, there are cases where such a build is not optional. For instance, you want to perform RSA operations. You -don't need the vast majority of the library to perform these operations. Aside from LTM\_ALL there is -another pre--defined class ``SC\_RSA\_1'' which works in conjunction with the RSA from LibTomCrypt. Additional -classes can be defined base on the need of the user. - -\subsection{Build Depends} -In the file tommath\_class.h you will see a large list of C ``defines'' followed by a series of ``ifdefs'' -which further define symbols. All of the symbols (technically they're macros $\ldots$) represent a given C source -file. For instance, BN\_MP\_ADD\_C represents the file ``bn\_mp\_add.c''. When a define has been enabled the -function in the respective file will be compiled and linked into the library. Accordingly when the define -is absent the file will not be compiled and not contribute any size to the library. - -You will also note that the header tommath\_class.h is actually recursively included (it includes itself twice). -This is to help resolve as many dependencies as possible. In the last pass the symbol LTM\_LAST will be defined. -This is useful for ``trims''. - -\subsection{Build Tweaks} -A tweak is an algorithm ``alternative''. For example, to provide tradeoffs (usually between size and space). -They can be enabled at any pass of the configuration phase. - -\begin{small} -\begin{center} -\begin{tabular}{|l|l|} -\hline \textbf{Define} & \textbf{Purpose} \\ -\hline BN\_MP\_DIV\_SMALL & Enables a slower, smaller and equally \\ - & functional mp\_div() function \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{center} -\end{small} - -\subsection{Build Trims} -A trim is a manner of removing functionality from a function that is not required. For instance, to perform -RSA cryptography you only require exponentiation with odd moduli so even moduli support can be safely removed. -Build trims are meant to be defined on the last pass of the configuration which means they are to be defined -only if LTM\_LAST has been defined. - -\subsubsection{Moduli Related} -\begin{small} -\begin{center} -\begin{tabular}{|l|l|} -\hline \textbf{Restriction} & \textbf{Undefine} \\ -\hline Exponentiation with odd moduli only & BN\_S\_MP\_EXPTMOD\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_REDUCE\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_REDUCE\_SETUP\_C \\ - & BN\_S\_MP\_MUL\_HIGH\_DIGS\_C \\ - & BN\_FAST\_S\_MP\_MUL\_HIGH\_DIGS\_C \\ -\hline Exponentiation with random odd moduli & (The above plus the following) \\ - & BN\_MP\_REDUCE\_2K\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_REDUCE\_2K\_SETUP\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_REDUCE\_IS\_2K\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_DR\_IS\_MODULUS\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_DR\_REDUCE\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_DR\_SETUP\_C \\ -\hline Modular inverse odd moduli only & BN\_MP\_INVMOD\_SLOW\_C \\ -\hline Modular inverse (both, smaller/slower) & BN\_FAST\_MP\_INVMOD\_C \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{center} -\end{small} - -\subsubsection{Operand Size Related} -\begin{small} -\begin{center} -\begin{tabular}{|l|l|} -\hline \textbf{Restriction} & \textbf{Undefine} \\ -\hline Moduli $\le 2560$ bits & BN\_MP\_MONTGOMERY\_REDUCE\_C \\ - & BN\_S\_MP\_MUL\_DIGS\_C \\ - & BN\_S\_MP\_MUL\_HIGH\_DIGS\_C \\ - & BN\_S\_MP\_SQR\_C \\ -\hline Polynomial Schmolynomial & BN\_MP\_KARATSUBA\_MUL\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_KARATSUBA\_SQR\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_TOOM\_MUL\_C \\ - & BN\_MP\_TOOM\_SQR\_C \\ - -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{center} -\end{small} - - -\section{Purpose of LibTomMath} -Unlike GNU MP (GMP) Library, LIP, OpenSSL or various other commercial kits (Miracl), LibTomMath was not written with -bleeding edge performance in mind. First and foremost LibTomMath was written to be entirely open. Not only is the -source code public domain (unlike various other GPL/etc licensed code), not only is the code freely downloadable but the -source code is also accessible for computer science students attempting to learn ``BigNum'' or multiple precision -arithmetic techniques. - -LibTomMath was written to be an instructive collection of source code. This is why there are many comments, only one -function per source file and often I use a ``middle-road'' approach where I don't cut corners for an extra 2\% speed -increase. - -Source code alone cannot really teach how the algorithms work which is why I also wrote a textbook that accompanies -the library (beat that!). - -So you may be thinking ``should I use LibTomMath?'' and the answer is a definite maybe. Let me tabulate what I think -are the pros and cons of LibTomMath by comparing it to the math routines from GnuPG\footnote{GnuPG v1.2.3 versus LibTomMath v0.28}. - -\newpage\begin{figure}[here] -\begin{small} -\begin{center} -\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|l|} -\hline \textbf{Criteria} & \textbf{Pro} & \textbf{Con} & \textbf{Notes} \\ -\hline Few lines of code per file & X & & GnuPG $ = 300.9$, LibTomMath $ = 71.97$ \\ -\hline Commented function prototypes & X && GnuPG function names are cryptic. \\ -\hline Speed && X & LibTomMath is slower. \\ -\hline Totally free & X & & GPL has unfavourable restrictions.\\ -\hline Large function base & X & & GnuPG is barebones. \\ -\hline Five modular reduction algorithms & X & & Faster modular exponentiation for a variety of moduli. \\ -\hline Portable & X & & GnuPG requires configuration to build. \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{center} -\end{small} -\caption{LibTomMath Valuation} -\end{figure} - -It may seem odd to compare LibTomMath to GnuPG since the math in GnuPG is only a small portion of the entire application. -However, LibTomMath was written with cryptography in mind. It provides essentially all of the functions a cryptosystem -would require when working with large integers. - -So it may feel tempting to just rip the math code out of GnuPG (or GnuMP where it was taken from originally) in your -own application but I think there are reasons not to. While LibTomMath is slower than libraries such as GnuMP it is -not normally significantly slower. On x86 machines the difference is normally a factor of two when performing modular -exponentiations. It depends largely on the processor, compiler and the moduli being used. - -Essentially the only time you wouldn't use LibTomMath is when blazing speed is the primary concern. However, -on the other side of the coin LibTomMath offers you a totally free (public domain) well structured math library -that is very flexible, complete and performs well in resource contrained environments. Fast RSA for example can -be performed with as little as 8KB of ram for data (again depending on build options). - -\chapter{Getting Started with LibTomMath} -\section{Building Programs} -In order to use LibTomMath you must include ``tommath.h'' and link against the appropriate library file (typically -libtommath.a). There is no library initialization required and the entire library is thread safe. - -\section{Return Codes} -There are three possible return codes a function may return. - -\index{MP\_OKAY}\index{MP\_YES}\index{MP\_NO}\index{MP\_VAL}\index{MP\_MEM} -\begin{figure}[here!] -\begin{center} -\begin{small} -\begin{tabular}{|l|l|} -\hline \textbf{Code} & \textbf{Meaning} \\ -\hline MP\_OKAY & The function succeeded. \\ -\hline MP\_VAL & The function input was invalid. \\ -\hline MP\_MEM & Heap memory exhausted. \\ -\hline &\\ -\hline MP\_YES & Response is yes. \\ -\hline MP\_NO & Response is no. \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{small} -\end{center} -\caption{Return Codes} -\end{figure} - -The last two codes listed are not actually ``return'ed'' by a function. They are placed in an integer (the caller must -provide the address of an integer it can store to) which the caller can access. To convert one of the three return codes -to a string use the following function. - -\index{mp\_error\_to\_string} -\begin{alltt} -char *mp_error_to_string(int code); -\end{alltt} - -This will return a pointer to a string which describes the given error code. It will not work for the return codes -MP\_YES and MP\_NO. - -\section{Data Types} -The basic ``multiple precision integer'' type is known as the ``mp\_int'' within LibTomMath. This data type is used to -organize all of the data required to manipulate the integer it represents. Within LibTomMath it has been prototyped -as the following. - -\index{mp\_int} -\begin{alltt} -typedef struct \{ - int used, alloc, sign; - mp_digit *dp; -\} mp_int; -\end{alltt} - -Where ``mp\_digit'' is a data type that represents individual digits of the integer. By default, an mp\_digit is the -ISO C ``unsigned long'' data type and each digit is $28-$bits long. The mp\_digit type can be configured to suit other -platforms by defining the appropriate macros. - -All LTM functions that use the mp\_int type will expect a pointer to mp\_int structure. You must allocate memory to -hold the structure itself by yourself (whether off stack or heap it doesn't matter). The very first thing that must be -done to use an mp\_int is that it must be initialized. - -\section{Function Organization} - -The arithmetic functions of the library are all organized to have the same style prototype. That is source operands -are passed on the left and the destination is on the right. For instance, - -\begin{alltt} -mp_add(&a, &b, &c); /* c = a + b */ -mp_mul(&a, &a, &c); /* c = a * a */ -mp_div(&a, &b, &c, &d); /* c = [a/b], d = a mod b */ -\end{alltt} - -Another feature of the way the functions have been implemented is that source operands can be destination operands as well. -For instance, - -\begin{alltt} -mp_add(&a, &b, &b); /* b = a + b */ -mp_div(&a, &b, &a, &c); /* a = [a/b], c = a mod b */ -\end{alltt} - -This allows operands to be re-used which can make programming simpler. - -\section{Initialization} -\subsection{Single Initialization} -A single mp\_int can be initialized with the ``mp\_init'' function. - -\index{mp\_init} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_init (mp_int * a); -\end{alltt} - -This function expects a pointer to an mp\_int structure and will initialize the members of the structure so the mp\_int -represents the default integer which is zero. If the functions returns MP\_OKAY then the mp\_int is ready to be used -by the other LibTomMath functions. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the number */ - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\subsection{Single Free} -When you are finished with an mp\_int it is ideal to return the heap it used back to the system. The following function -provides this functionality. - -\index{mp\_clear} -\begin{alltt} -void mp_clear (mp_int * a); -\end{alltt} - -The function expects a pointer to a previously initialized mp\_int structure and frees the heap it uses. It sets the -pointer\footnote{The ``dp'' member.} within the mp\_int to \textbf{NULL} which is used to prevent double free situations. -Is is legal to call mp\_clear() twice on the same mp\_int in a row. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the number */ - - /* We're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\subsection{Multiple Initializations} -Certain algorithms require more than one large integer. In these instances it is ideal to initialize all of the mp\_int -variables in an ``all or nothing'' fashion. That is, they are either all initialized successfully or they are all -not initialized. - -The mp\_init\_multi() function provides this functionality. - -\index{mp\_init\_multi} \index{mp\_clear\_multi} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_init_multi(mp_int *mp, ...); -\end{alltt} - -It accepts a \textbf{NULL} terminated list of pointers to mp\_int structures. It will attempt to initialize them all -at once. If the function returns MP\_OKAY then all of the mp\_int variables are ready to use, otherwise none of them -are available for use. A complementary mp\_clear\_multi() function allows multiple mp\_int variables to be free'd -from the heap at the same time. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int num1, num2, num3; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init_multi(&num1, - &num2, - &num3, NULL)) != MP\_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the numbers. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the numbers */ - - /* We're done with them. */ - mp_clear_multi(&num1, &num2, &num3, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\subsection{Other Initializers} -To initialized and make a copy of an mp\_int the mp\_init\_copy() function has been provided. - -\index{mp\_init\_copy} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_init_copy (mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -This function will initialize $a$ and make it a copy of $b$ if all goes well. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int num1, num2; - int result; - - /* initialize and do work on num1 ... */ - - /* We want a copy of num1 in num2 now */ - if ((result = mp_init_copy(&num2, &num1)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the copy. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now num2 is ready and contains a copy of num1 */ - - /* We're done with them. */ - mp_clear_multi(&num1, &num2, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -Another less common initializer is mp\_init\_size() which allows the user to initialize an mp\_int with a given -default number of digits. By default, all initializers allocate \textbf{MP\_PREC} digits. This function lets -you override this behaviour. - -\index{mp\_init\_size} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_init_size (mp_int * a, int size); -\end{alltt} - -The $size$ parameter must be greater than zero. If the function succeeds the mp\_int $a$ will be initialized -to have $size$ digits (which are all initially zero). - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - /* we need a 60-digit number */ - if ((result = mp_init_size(&number, 60)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the number */ - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\section{Maintenance Functions} - -\subsection{Reducing Memory Usage} -When an mp\_int is in a state where it won't be changed again\footnote{A Diffie-Hellman modulus for instance.} excess -digits can be removed to return memory to the heap with the mp\_shrink() function. - -\index{mp\_shrink} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_shrink (mp_int * a); -\end{alltt} - -This will remove excess digits of the mp\_int $a$. If the operation fails the mp\_int should be intact without the -excess digits being removed. Note that you can use a shrunk mp\_int in further computations, however, such operations -will require heap operations which can be slow. It is not ideal to shrink mp\_int variables that you will further -modify in the system (unless you are seriously low on memory). - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the number [e.g. pre-computation] */ - - /* We're done with it for now. */ - if ((result = mp_shrink(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error shrinking the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use it .... */ - - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\subsection{Adding additional digits} - -Within the mp\_int structure are two parameters which control the limitations of the array of digits that represent -the integer the mp\_int is meant to equal. The \textit{used} parameter dictates how many digits are significant, that is, -contribute to the value of the mp\_int. The \textit{alloc} parameter dictates how many digits are currently available in -the array. If you need to perform an operation that requires more digits you will have to mp\_grow() the mp\_int to -your desired size. - -\index{mp\_grow} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_grow (mp_int * a, int size); -\end{alltt} - -This will grow the array of digits of $a$ to $size$. If the \textit{alloc} parameter is already bigger than -$size$ the function will not do anything. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* use the number */ - - /* We need to add 20 digits to the number */ - if ((result = mp_grow(&number, number.alloc + 20)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error growing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - - /* use the number */ - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\chapter{Basic Operations} -\section{Small Constants} -Setting mp\_ints to small constants is a relatively common operation. To accomodate these instances there are two -small constant assignment functions. The first function is used to set a single digit constant while the second sets -an ISO C style ``unsigned long'' constant. The reason for both functions is efficiency. Setting a single digit is quick but the -domain of a digit can change (it's always at least $0 \ldots 127$). - -\subsection{Single Digit} - -Setting a single digit can be accomplished with the following function. - -\index{mp\_set} -\begin{alltt} -void mp_set (mp_int * a, mp_digit b); -\end{alltt} - -This will zero the contents of $a$ and make it represent an integer equal to the value of $b$. Note that this -function has a return type of \textbf{void}. It cannot cause an error so it is safe to assume the function -succeeded. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number to 5 */ - mp_set(&number, 5); - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -\subsection{Long Constants} - -To set a constant that is the size of an ISO C ``unsigned long'' and larger than a single digit the following function -can be used. - -\index{mp\_set\_int} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_set_int (mp_int * a, unsigned long b); -\end{alltt} - -This will assign the value of the 32-bit variable $b$ to the mp\_int $a$. Unlike mp\_set() this function will always -accept a 32-bit input regardless of the size of a single digit. However, since the value may span several digits -this function can fail if it runs out of heap memory. - -To get the ``unsigned long'' copy of an mp\_int the following function can be used. - -\index{mp\_get\_int} -\begin{alltt} -unsigned long mp_get_int (mp_int * a); -\end{alltt} - -This will return the 32 least significant bits of the mp\_int $a$. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number to 654321 (note this is bigger than 127) */ - if ((result = mp_set_int(&number, 654321)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting the value of the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - printf("number == \%lu", mp_get_int(&number)); - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -This should output the following if the program succeeds. - -\begin{alltt} -number == 654321 -\end{alltt} - -\subsection{Initialize and Setting Constants} -To both initialize and set small constants the following two functions are available. -\index{mp\_init\_set} \index{mp\_init\_set\_int} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_init_set (mp_int * a, mp_digit b); -int mp_init_set_int (mp_int * a, unsigned long b); -\end{alltt} - -Both functions work like the previous counterparts except they first mp\_init $a$ before setting the values. - -\begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number1, number2; - int result; - - /* initialize and set a single digit */ - if ((result = mp_init_set(&number1, 100)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting number1: \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* initialize and set a long */ - if ((result = mp_init_set_int(&number2, 1023)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting number2: \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* display */ - printf("Number1, Number2 == \%lu, \%lu", - mp_get_int(&number1), mp_get_int(&number2)); - - /* clear */ - mp_clear_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} - -If this program succeeds it shall output. -\begin{alltt} -Number1, Number2 == 100, 1023 -\end{alltt} - -\section{Comparisons} - -Comparisons in LibTomMath are always performed in a ``left to right'' fashion. There are three possible return codes -for any comparison. - -\index{MP\_GT} \index{MP\_EQ} \index{MP\_LT} -\begin{figure}[here] -\begin{center} -\begin{tabular}{|c|c|} -\hline \textbf{Result Code} & \textbf{Meaning} \\ -\hline MP\_GT & $a > b$ \\ -\hline MP\_EQ & $a = b$ \\ -\hline MP\_LT & $a < b$ \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{center} -\caption{Comparison Codes for $a, b$} -\label{fig:CMP} -\end{figure} - -In figure \ref{fig:CMP} two integers $a$ and $b$ are being compared. In this case $a$ is said to be ``to the left'' of -$b$. - -\subsection{Unsigned comparison} - -An unsigned comparison considers only the digits themselves and not the associated \textit{sign} flag of the -mp\_int structures. This is analogous to an absolute comparison. The function mp\_cmp\_mag() will compare two -mp\_int variables based on their digits only. - -\index{mp\_cmp\_mag} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_cmp_mag(mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} -This will compare $a$ to $b$ placing $a$ to the left of $b$. This function cannot fail and will return one of the -three compare codes listed in figure \ref{fig:CMP}. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number1, number2; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the numbers. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number1 to 5 */ - mp_set(&number1, 5); - - /* set the number2 to -6 */ - mp_set(&number2, 6); - if ((result = mp_neg(&number2, &number2)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error negating number2. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - switch(mp_cmp_mag(&number1, &number2)) \{ - case MP_GT: printf("|number1| > |number2|"); break; - case MP_EQ: printf("|number1| = |number2|"); break; - case MP_LT: printf("|number1| < |number2|"); break; - \} - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -If this program\footnote{This function uses the mp\_neg() function which is discussed in section \ref{sec:NEG}.} completes -successfully it should print the following. - -\begin{alltt} -|number1| < |number2| -\end{alltt} - -This is because $\vert -6 \vert = 6$ and obviously $5 < 6$. - -\subsection{Signed comparison} - -To compare two mp\_int variables based on their signed value the mp\_cmp() function is provided. - -\index{mp\_cmp} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_cmp(mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -This will compare $a$ to the left of $b$. It will first compare the signs of the two mp\_int variables. If they -differ it will return immediately based on their signs. If the signs are equal then it will compare the digits -individually. This function will return one of the compare conditions codes listed in figure \ref{fig:CMP}. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number1, number2; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the numbers. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number1 to 5 */ - mp_set(&number1, 5); - - /* set the number2 to -6 */ - mp_set(&number2, 6); - if ((result = mp_neg(&number2, &number2)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error negating number2. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - switch(mp_cmp(&number1, &number2)) \{ - case MP_GT: printf("number1 > number2"); break; - case MP_EQ: printf("number1 = number2"); break; - case MP_LT: printf("number1 < number2"); break; - \} - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -If this program\footnote{This function uses the mp\_neg() function which is discussed in section \ref{sec:NEG}.} completes -successfully it should print the following. - -\begin{alltt} -number1 > number2 -\end{alltt} - -\subsection{Single Digit} - -To compare a single digit against an mp\_int the following function has been provided. - -\index{mp\_cmp\_d} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_cmp_d(mp_int * a, mp_digit b); -\end{alltt} - -This will compare $a$ to the left of $b$ using a signed comparison. Note that it will always treat $b$ as -positive. This function is rather handy when you have to compare against small values such as $1$ (which often -comes up in cryptography). The function cannot fail and will return one of the tree compare condition codes -listed in figure \ref{fig:CMP}. - - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number to 5 */ - mp_set(&number, 5); - - switch(mp_cmp_d(&number, 7)) \{ - case MP_GT: printf("number > 7"); break; - case MP_EQ: printf("number = 7"); break; - case MP_LT: printf("number < 7"); break; - \} - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -If this program functions properly it will print out the following. - -\begin{alltt} -number < 7 -\end{alltt} - -\section{Logical Operations} - -Logical operations are operations that can be performed either with simple shifts or boolean operators such as -AND, XOR and OR directly. These operations are very quick. - -\subsection{Multiplication by two} - -Multiplications and divisions by any power of two can be performed with quick logical shifts either left or -right depending on the operation. - -When multiplying or dividing by two a special case routine can be used which are as follows. -\index{mp\_mul\_2} \index{mp\_div\_2} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_mul_2(mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -int mp_div_2(mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -The former will assign twice $a$ to $b$ while the latter will assign half $a$ to $b$. These functions are fast -since the shift counts and maskes are hardcoded into the routines. - -\begin{small} \begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number; - int result; - - if ((result = mp_init(&number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the number to 5 */ - mp_set(&number, 5); - - /* multiply by two */ - if ((result = mp\_mul\_2(&number, &number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error multiplying the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - switch(mp_cmp_d(&number, 7)) \{ - case MP_GT: printf("2*number > 7"); break; - case MP_EQ: printf("2*number = 7"); break; - case MP_LT: printf("2*number < 7"); break; - \} - - /* now divide by two */ - if ((result = mp\_div\_2(&number, &number)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error dividing the number. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - switch(mp_cmp_d(&number, 7)) \{ - case MP_GT: printf("2*number/2 > 7"); break; - case MP_EQ: printf("2*number/2 = 7"); break; - case MP_LT: printf("2*number/2 < 7"); break; - \} - - /* we're done with it. */ - mp_clear(&number); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} \end{small} - -If this program is successful it will print out the following text. - -\begin{alltt} -2*number > 7 -2*number/2 < 7 -\end{alltt} - -Since $10 > 7$ and $5 < 7$. To multiply by a power of two the following function can be used. - -\index{mp\_mul\_2d} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_mul_2d(mp_int * a, int b, mp_int * c); -\end{alltt} - -This will multiply $a$ by $2^b$ and store the result in ``c''. If the value of $b$ is less than or equal to -zero the function will copy $a$ to ``c'' without performing any further actions. - -To divide by a power of two use the following. - -\index{mp\_div\_2d} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_div_2d (mp_int * a, int b, mp_int * c, mp_int * d); -\end{alltt} -Which will divide $a$ by $2^b$, store the quotient in ``c'' and the remainder in ``d'. If $b \le 0$ then the -function simply copies $a$ over to ``c'' and zeroes $d$. The variable $d$ may be passed as a \textbf{NULL} -value to signal that the remainder is not desired. - -\subsection{Polynomial Basis Operations} - -Strictly speaking the organization of the integers within the mp\_int structures is what is known as a -``polynomial basis''. This simply means a field element is stored by divisions of a radix. For example, if -$f(x) = \sum_{i=0}^{k} y_ix^k$ for any vector $\vec y$ then the array of digits in $\vec y$ are said to be -the polynomial basis representation of $z$ if $f(\beta) = z$ for a given radix $\beta$. - -To multiply by the polynomial $g(x) = x$ all you have todo is shift the digits of the basis left one place. The -following function provides this operation. - -\index{mp\_lshd} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_lshd (mp_int * a, int b); -\end{alltt} - -This will multiply $a$ in place by $x^b$ which is equivalent to shifting the digits left $b$ places and inserting zeroes -in the least significant digits. Similarly to divide by a power of $x$ the following function is provided. - -\index{mp\_rshd} -\begin{alltt} -void mp_rshd (mp_int * a, int b) -\end{alltt} -This will divide $a$ in place by $x^b$ and discard the remainder. This function cannot fail as it performs the operations -in place and no new digits are required to complete it. - -\subsection{AND, OR and XOR Operations} - -While AND, OR and XOR operations are not typical ``bignum functions'' they can be useful in several instances. The -three functions are prototyped as follows. - -\index{mp\_or} \index{mp\_and} \index{mp\_xor} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_or (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c); -int mp_and (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c); -int mp_xor (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c); -\end{alltt} - -Which compute $c = a \odot b$ where $\odot$ is one of OR, AND or XOR. - -\section{Addition and Subtraction} - -To compute an addition or subtraction the following two functions can be used. - -\index{mp\_add} \index{mp\_sub} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_add (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c); -int mp_sub (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} - -Which perform $c = a \odot b$ where $\odot$ is one of signed addition or subtraction. The operations are fully sign -aware. - -\section{Sign Manipulation} -\subsection{Negation} -\label{sec:NEG} -Simple integer negation can be performed with the following. - -\index{mp\_neg} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_neg (mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -Which assigns $-a$ to $b$. - -\subsection{Absolute} -Simple integer absolutes can be performed with the following. - -\index{mp\_neg} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_abs (mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -Which assigns $\vert a \vert$ to $b$. - -\section{Integer Division and Remainder} -To perform a complete and general integer division with remainder use the following function. - -\index{mp\_div} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_div (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c, mp_int * d); -\end{alltt} - -This divides $a$ by $b$ and stores the quotient in $c$ and $d$. The signed quotient is computed such that -$bc + d = a$. Note that either of $c$ or $d$ can be set to \textbf{NULL} if their value is not required. If -$b$ is zero the function returns \textbf{MP\_VAL}. - - -\chapter{Multiplication and Squaring} -\section{Multiplication} -A full signed integer multiplication can be performed with the following. -\index{mp\_mul} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_mul (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c); -\end{alltt} -Which assigns the full signed product $ab$ to $c$. This function actually breaks into one of four cases which are -specific multiplication routines optimized for given parameters. First there are the Toom-Cook multiplications which -should only be used with very large inputs. This is followed by the Karatsuba multiplications which are for moderate -sized inputs. Then followed by the Comba and baseline multipliers. - -Fortunately for the developer you don't really need to know this unless you really want to fine tune the system. mp\_mul() -will determine on its own\footnote{Some tweaking may be required.} what routine to use automatically when it is called. - -\begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int number1, number2; - int result; - - /* Initialize the numbers */ - if ((result = mp_init_multi(&number1, - &number2, NULL)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error initializing the numbers. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* set the terms */ - if ((result = mp_set_int(&number, 257)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting number1. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - if ((result = mp_set_int(&number2, 1023)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting number2. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* multiply them */ - if ((result = mp_mul(&number1, &number2, - &number1)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error multiplying terms. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* display */ - printf("number1 * number2 == \%lu", mp_get_int(&number1)); - - /* free terms and return */ - mp_clear_multi(&number1, &number2, NULL); - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} - -If this program succeeds it shall output the following. - -\begin{alltt} -number1 * number2 == 262911 -\end{alltt} - -\section{Squaring} -Since squaring can be performed faster than multiplication it is performed it's own function instead of just using -mp\_mul(). - -\index{mp\_sqr} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_sqr (mp_int * a, mp_int * b); -\end{alltt} - -Will square $a$ and store it in $b$. Like the case of multiplication there are four different squaring -algorithms all which can be called from mp\_sqr(). It is ideal to use mp\_sqr over mp\_mul when squaring terms because -of the speed difference. - -\section{Tuning Polynomial Basis Routines} - -Both of the Toom-Cook and Karatsuba multiplication algorithms are faster than the traditional $O(n^2)$ approach that -the Comba and baseline algorithms use. At $O(n^{1.464973})$ and $O(n^{1.584962})$ running times respectively they require -considerably less work. For example, a 10000-digit multiplication would take roughly 724,000 single precision -multiplications with Toom-Cook or 100,000,000 single precision multiplications with the standard Comba (a factor -of 138). - -So why not always use Karatsuba or Toom-Cook? The simple answer is that they have so much overhead that they're not -actually faster than Comba until you hit distinct ``cutoff'' points. For Karatsuba with the default configuration, -GCC 3.3.1 and an Athlon XP processor the cutoff point is roughly 110 digits (about 70 for the Intel P4). That is, at -110 digits Karatsuba and Comba multiplications just about break even and for 110+ digits Karatsuba is faster. - -Toom-Cook has incredible overhead and is probably only useful for very large inputs. So far no known cutoff points -exist and for the most part I just set the cutoff points very high to make sure they're not called. - -A demo program in the ``etc/'' directory of the project called ``tune.c'' can be used to find the cutoff points. This -can be built with GCC as follows - -\begin{alltt} -make XXX -\end{alltt} -Where ``XXX'' is one of the following entries from the table \ref{fig:tuning}. - -\begin{figure}[here] -\begin{center} -\begin{small} -\begin{tabular}{|l|l|} -\hline \textbf{Value of XXX} & \textbf{Meaning} \\ -\hline tune & Builds portable tuning application \\ -\hline tune86 & Builds x86 (pentium and up) program for COFF \\ -\hline tune86c & Builds x86 program for Cygwin \\ -\hline tune86l & Builds x86 program for Linux (ELF format) \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{small} -\end{center} -\caption{Build Names for Tuning Programs} -\label{fig:tuning} -\end{figure} - -When the program is running it will output a series of measurements for different cutoff points. It will first find -good Karatsuba squaring and multiplication points. Then it proceeds to find Toom-Cook points. Note that the Toom-Cook -tuning takes a very long time as the cutoff points are likely to be very high. - -\chapter{Modular Reduction} - -Modular reduction is process of taking the remainder of one quantity divided by another. Expressed -as (\ref{eqn:mod}) the modular reduction is equivalent to the remainder of $b$ divided by $c$. - -\begin{equation} -a \equiv b \mbox{ (mod }c\mbox{)} -\label{eqn:mod} -\end{equation} - -Of particular interest to cryptography are reductions where $b$ is limited to the range $0 \le b < c^2$ since particularly -fast reduction algorithms can be written for the limited range. - -Note that one of the four optimized reduction algorithms are automatically chosen in the modular exponentiation -algorithm mp\_exptmod when an appropriate modulus is detected. - -\section{Straight Division} -In order to effect an arbitrary modular reduction the following algorithm is provided. - -\index{mp\_mod} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_mod(mp_int *a, mp_int *b, mp_int *c); -\end{alltt} - -This reduces $a$ modulo $b$ and stores the result in $c$. The sign of $c$ shall agree with the sign -of $b$. This algorithm accepts an input $a$ of any range and is not limited by $0 \le a < b^2$. - -\section{Barrett Reduction} - -Barrett reduction is a generic optimized reduction algorithm that requires pre--computation to achieve -a decent speedup over straight division. First a $\mu$ value must be precomputed with the following function. - -\index{mp\_reduce\_setup} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_reduce_setup(mp_int *a, mp_int *b); -\end{alltt} - -Given a modulus in $b$ this produces the required $\mu$ value in $a$. For any given modulus this only has to -be computed once. Modular reduction can now be performed with the following. - -\index{mp\_reduce} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_reduce(mp_int *a, mp_int *b, mp_int *c); -\end{alltt} - -This will reduce $a$ in place modulo $b$ with the precomputed $\mu$ value in $c$. $a$ must be in the range -$0 \le a < b^2$. - -\begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int a, b, c, mu; - int result; - - /* initialize a,b to desired values, mp_init mu, - * c and set c to 1...we want to compute a^3 mod b - */ - - /* get mu value */ - if ((result = mp_reduce_setup(&mu, b)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error getting mu. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* square a to get c = a^2 */ - if ((result = mp_sqr(&a, &c)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error squaring. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now reduce `c' modulo b */ - if ((result = mp_reduce(&c, &b, &mu)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* multiply a to get c = a^3 */ - if ((result = mp_mul(&a, &c, &c)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now reduce `c' modulo b */ - if ((result = mp_reduce(&c, &b, &mu)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* c now equals a^3 mod b */ - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} - -This program will calculate $a^3 \mbox{ mod }b$ if all the functions succeed. - -\section{Montgomery Reduction} - -Montgomery is a specialized reduction algorithm for any odd moduli. Like Barrett reduction a pre--computation -step is required. This is accomplished with the following. - -\index{mp\_montgomery\_setup} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_montgomery_setup(mp_int *a, mp_digit *mp); -\end{alltt} - -For the given odd moduli $a$ the precomputation value is placed in $mp$. The reduction is computed with the -following. - -\index{mp\_montgomery\_reduce} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_montgomery_reduce(mp_int *a, mp_int *m, mp_digit mp); -\end{alltt} -This reduces $a$ in place modulo $m$ with the pre--computed value $mp$. $a$ must be in the range -$0 \le a < b^2$. - -Montgomery reduction is faster than Barrett reduction for moduli smaller than the ``comba'' limit. With the default -setup for instance, the limit is $127$ digits ($3556$--bits). Note that this function is not limited to -$127$ digits just that it falls back to a baseline algorithm after that point. - -An important observation is that this reduction does not return $a \mbox{ mod }m$ but $aR^{-1} \mbox{ mod }m$ -where $R = \beta^n$, $n$ is the n number of digits in $m$ and $\beta$ is radix used (default is $2^{28}$). - -To quickly calculate $R$ the following function was provided. - -\index{mp\_montgomery\_calc\_normalization} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_montgomery_calc_normalization(mp_int *a, mp_int *b); -\end{alltt} -Which calculates $a = R$ for the odd moduli $b$ without using multiplication or division. - -The normal modus operandi for Montgomery reductions is to normalize the integers before entering the system. For -example, to calculate $a^3 \mbox { mod }b$ using Montgomery reduction the value of $a$ can be normalized by -multiplying it by $R$. Consider the following code snippet. - -\begin{alltt} -int main(void) -\{ - mp_int a, b, c, R; - mp_digit mp; - int result; - - /* initialize a,b to desired values, - * mp_init R, c and set c to 1.... - */ - - /* get normalization */ - if ((result = mp_montgomery_calc_normalization(&R, b)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error getting norm. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* get mp value */ - if ((result = mp_montgomery_setup(&c, &mp)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error setting up montgomery. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* normalize `a' so now a is equal to aR */ - if ((result = mp_mulmod(&a, &R, &b, &a)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error computing aR. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* square a to get c = a^2R^2 */ - if ((result = mp_sqr(&a, &c)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error squaring. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now reduce `c' back down to c = a^2R^2 * R^-1 == a^2R */ - if ((result = mp_montgomery_reduce(&c, &b, mp)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* multiply a to get c = a^3R^2 */ - if ((result = mp_mul(&a, &c, &c)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now reduce `c' back down to c = a^3R^2 * R^-1 == a^3R */ - if ((result = mp_montgomery_reduce(&c, &b, mp)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* now reduce (again) `c' back down to c = a^3R * R^-1 == a^3 */ - if ((result = mp_montgomery_reduce(&c, &b, mp)) != MP_OKAY) \{ - printf("Error reducing. \%s", - mp_error_to_string(result)); - return EXIT_FAILURE; - \} - - /* c now equals a^3 mod b */ - - return EXIT_SUCCESS; -\} -\end{alltt} - -This particular example does not look too efficient but it demonstrates the point of the algorithm. By -normalizing the inputs the reduced results are always of the form $aR$ for some variable $a$. This allows -a single final reduction to correct for the normalization and the fast reduction used within the algorithm. - -For more details consider examining the file \textit{bn\_mp\_exptmod\_fast.c}. - -\section{Restricted Dimminished Radix} - -``Dimminished Radix'' reduction refers to reduction with respect to moduli that are ameniable to simple -digit shifting and small multiplications. In this case the ``restricted'' variant refers to moduli of the -form $\beta^k - p$ for some $k \ge 0$ and $0 < p < \beta$ where $\beta$ is the radix (default to $2^{28}$). - -As in the case of Montgomery reduction there is a pre--computation phase required for a given modulus. - -\index{mp\_dr\_setup} -\begin{alltt} -void mp_dr_setup(mp_int *a, mp_digit *d); -\end{alltt} - -This computes the value required for the modulus $a$ and stores it in $d$. This function cannot fail -and does not return any error codes. After the pre--computation a reduction can be performed with the -following. - -\index{mp\_dr\_reduce} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_dr_reduce(mp_int *a, mp_int *b, mp_digit mp); -\end{alltt} - -This reduces $a$ in place modulo $b$ with the pre--computed value $mp$. $b$ must be of a restricted -dimminished radix form and $a$ must be in the range $0 \le a < b^2$. Dimminished radix reductions are -much faster than both Barrett and Montgomery reductions as they have a much lower asymtotic running time. - -Since the moduli are restricted this algorithm is not particularly useful for something like Rabin, RSA or -BBS cryptographic purposes. This reduction algorithm is useful for Diffie-Hellman and ECC where fixed -primes are acceptable. - -Note that unlike Montgomery reduction there is no normalization process. The result of this function is -equal to the correct residue. - -\section{Unrestricted Dimminshed Radix} - -Unrestricted reductions work much like the restricted counterparts except in this case the moduli is of the -form $2^k - p$ for $0 < p < \beta$. In this sense the unrestricted reductions are more flexible as they -can be applied to a wider range of numbers. - -\index{mp\_reduce\_2k\_setup} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_reduce_2k_setup(mp_int *a, mp_digit *d); -\end{alltt} - -This will compute the required $d$ value for the given moduli $a$. - -\index{mp\_reduce\_2k} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_reduce_2k(mp_int *a, mp_int *n, mp_digit d); -\end{alltt} - -This will reduce $a$ in place modulo $n$ with the pre--computed value $d$. From my experience this routine is -slower than mp\_dr\_reduce but faster for most moduli sizes than the Montgomery reduction. - -\chapter{Exponentiation} -\section{Single Digit Exponentiation} -\index{mp\_expt\_d} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_expt_d (mp_int * a, mp_digit b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} -This computes $c = a^b$ using a simple binary left-to-right algorithm. It is faster than repeated multiplications by -$a$ for all values of $b$ greater than three. - -\section{Modular Exponentiation} -\index{mp\_exptmod} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_exptmod (mp_int * G, mp_int * X, mp_int * P, mp_int * Y) -\end{alltt} -This computes $Y \equiv G^X \mbox{ (mod }P\mbox{)}$ using a variable width sliding window algorithm. This function -will automatically detect the fastest modular reduction technique to use during the operation. For negative values of -$X$ the operation is performed as $Y \equiv (G^{-1} \mbox{ mod }P)^{\vert X \vert} \mbox{ (mod }P\mbox{)}$ provided that -$gcd(G, P) = 1$. - -This function is actually a shell around the two internal exponentiation functions. This routine will automatically -detect when Barrett, Montgomery, Restricted and Unrestricted Dimminished Radix based exponentiation can be used. Generally -moduli of the a ``restricted dimminished radix'' form lead to the fastest modular exponentiations. Followed by Montgomery -and the other two algorithms. - -\section{Root Finding} -\index{mp\_n\_root} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_n_root (mp_int * a, mp_digit b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} -This computes $c = a^{1/b}$ such that $c^b \le a$ and $(c+1)^b > a$. The implementation of this function is not -ideal for values of $b$ greater than three. It will work but become very slow. So unless you are working with very small -numbers (less than 1000 bits) I'd avoid $b > 3$ situations. Will return a positive root only for even roots and return -a root with the sign of the input for odd roots. For example, performing $4^{1/2}$ will return $2$ whereas $(-8)^{1/3}$ -will return $-2$. - -This algorithm uses the ``Newton Approximation'' method and will converge on the correct root fairly quickly. Since -the algorithm requires raising $a$ to the power of $b$ it is not ideal to attempt to find roots for large -values of $b$. If particularly large roots are required then a factor method could be used instead. For example, -$a^{1/16}$ is equivalent to $\left (a^{1/4} \right)^{1/4}$ or simply -$\left ( \left ( \left ( a^{1/2} \right )^{1/2} \right )^{1/2} \right )^{1/2}$ - -\chapter{Prime Numbers} -\section{Trial Division} -\index{mp\_prime\_is\_divisible} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_is_divisible (mp_int * a, int *result) -\end{alltt} -This will attempt to evenly divide $a$ by a list of primes\footnote{Default is the first 256 primes.} and store the -outcome in ``result''. That is if $result = 0$ then $a$ is not divisible by the primes, otherwise it is. Note that -if the function does not return \textbf{MP\_OKAY} the value in ``result'' should be considered undefined\footnote{Currently -the default is to set it to zero first.}. - -\section{Fermat Test} -\index{mp\_prime\_fermat} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_fermat (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, int *result) -\end{alltt} -Performs a Fermat primality test to the base $b$. That is it computes $b^a \mbox{ mod }a$ and tests whether the value is -equal to $b$ or not. If the values are equal then $a$ is probably prime and $result$ is set to one. Otherwise $result$ -is set to zero. - -\section{Miller-Rabin Test} -\index{mp\_prime\_miller\_rabin} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_miller_rabin (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, int *result) -\end{alltt} -Performs a Miller-Rabin test to the base $b$ of $a$. This test is much stronger than the Fermat test and is very hard to -fool (besides with Carmichael numbers). If $a$ passes the test (therefore is probably prime) $result$ is set to one. -Otherwise $result$ is set to zero. - -Note that is suggested that you use the Miller-Rabin test instead of the Fermat test since all of the failures of -Miller-Rabin are a subset of the failures of the Fermat test. - -\subsection{Required Number of Tests} -Generally to ensure a number is very likely to be prime you have to perform the Miller-Rabin with at least a half-dozen -or so unique bases. However, it has been proven that the probability of failure goes down as the size of the input goes up. -This is why a simple function has been provided to help out. - -\index{mp\_prime\_rabin\_miller\_trials} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_rabin_miller_trials(int size) -\end{alltt} -This returns the number of trials required for a $2^{-96}$ (or lower) probability of failure for a given ``size'' expressed -in bits. This comes in handy specially since larger numbers are slower to test. For example, a 512-bit number would -require ten tests whereas a 1024-bit number would only require four tests. - -You should always still perform a trial division before a Miller-Rabin test though. - -\section{Primality Testing} -\index{mp\_prime\_is\_prime} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_is_prime (mp_int * a, int t, int *result) -\end{alltt} -This will perform a trial division followed by $t$ rounds of Miller-Rabin tests on $a$ and store the result in $result$. -If $a$ passes all of the tests $result$ is set to one, otherwise it is set to zero. Note that $t$ is bounded by -$1 \le t < PRIME\_SIZE$ where $PRIME\_SIZE$ is the number of primes in the prime number table (by default this is $256$). - -\section{Next Prime} -\index{mp\_prime\_next\_prime} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_next_prime(mp_int *a, int t, int bbs_style) -\end{alltt} -This finds the next prime after $a$ that passes mp\_prime\_is\_prime() with $t$ tests. Set $bbs\_style$ to one if you -want only the next prime congruent to $3 \mbox{ mod } 4$, otherwise set it to zero to find any next prime. - -\section{Random Primes} -\index{mp\_prime\_random} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_random(mp_int *a, int t, int size, int bbs, - ltm_prime_callback cb, void *dat) -\end{alltt} -This will find a prime greater than $256^{size}$ which can be ``bbs\_style'' or not depending on $bbs$ and must pass -$t$ rounds of tests. The ``ltm\_prime\_callback'' is a typedef for - -\begin{alltt} -typedef int ltm_prime_callback(unsigned char *dst, int len, void *dat); -\end{alltt} - -Which is a function that must read $len$ bytes (and return the amount stored) into $dst$. The $dat$ variable is simply -copied from the original input. It can be used to pass RNG context data to the callback. The function -mp\_prime\_random() is more suitable for generating primes which must be secret (as in the case of RSA) since there -is no skew on the least significant bits. - -\textit{Note:} As of v0.30 of the LibTomMath library this function has been deprecated. It is still available -but users are encouraged to use the new mp\_prime\_random\_ex() function instead. - -\subsection{Extended Generation} -\index{mp\_prime\_random\_ex} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_prime_random_ex(mp_int *a, int t, - int size, int flags, - ltm_prime_callback cb, void *dat); -\end{alltt} -This will generate a prime in $a$ using $t$ tests of the primality testing algorithms. The variable $size$ -specifies the bit length of the prime desired. The variable $flags$ specifies one of several options available -(see fig. \ref{fig:primeopts}) which can be OR'ed together. The callback parameters are used as in -mp\_prime\_random(). - -\begin{figure}[here] -\begin{center} -\begin{small} -\begin{tabular}{|r|l|} -\hline \textbf{Flag} & \textbf{Meaning} \\ -\hline LTM\_PRIME\_BBS & Make the prime congruent to $3$ modulo $4$ \\ -\hline LTM\_PRIME\_SAFE & Make a prime $p$ such that $(p - 1)/2$ is also prime. \\ - & This option implies LTM\_PRIME\_BBS as well. \\ -\hline LTM\_PRIME\_2MSB\_OFF & Makes sure that the bit adjacent to the most significant bit \\ - & Is forced to zero. \\ -\hline LTM\_PRIME\_2MSB\_ON & Makes sure that the bit adjacent to the most significant bit \\ - & Is forced to one. \\ -\hline -\end{tabular} -\end{small} -\end{center} -\caption{Primality Generation Options} -\label{fig:primeopts} -\end{figure} - -\chapter{Input and Output} -\section{ASCII Conversions} -\subsection{To ASCII} -\index{mp\_toradix} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_toradix (mp_int * a, char *str, int radix); -\end{alltt} -This still store $a$ in ``str'' as a base-``radix'' string of ASCII chars. This function appends a NUL character -to terminate the string. Valid values of ``radix'' line in the range $[2, 64]$. To determine the size (exact) required -by the conversion before storing any data use the following function. - -\index{mp\_radix\_size} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_radix_size (mp_int * a, int radix, int *size) -\end{alltt} -This stores in ``size'' the number of characters (including space for the NUL terminator) required. Upon error this -function returns an error code and ``size'' will be zero. - -\subsection{From ASCII} -\index{mp\_read\_radix} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_read_radix (mp_int * a, char *str, int radix); -\end{alltt} -This will read the base-``radix'' NUL terminated string from ``str'' into $a$. It will stop reading when it reads a -character it does not recognize (which happens to include th NUL char... imagine that...). A single leading $-$ sign -can be used to denote a negative number. - -\section{Binary Conversions} - -Converting an mp\_int to and from binary is another keen idea. - -\index{mp\_unsigned\_bin\_size} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_unsigned_bin_size(mp_int *a); -\end{alltt} - -This will return the number of bytes (octets) required to store the unsigned copy of the integer $a$. - -\index{mp\_to\_unsigned\_bin} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_to_unsigned_bin(mp_int *a, unsigned char *b); -\end{alltt} -This will store $a$ into the buffer $b$ in big--endian format. Fortunately this is exactly what DER (or is it ASN?) -requires. It does not store the sign of the integer. - -\index{mp\_read\_unsigned\_bin} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_read_unsigned_bin(mp_int *a, unsigned char *b, int c); -\end{alltt} -This will read in an unsigned big--endian array of bytes (octets) from $b$ of length $c$ into $a$. The resulting -integer $a$ will always be positive. - -For those who acknowledge the existence of negative numbers (heretic!) there are ``signed'' versions of the -previous functions. - -\begin{alltt} -int mp_signed_bin_size(mp_int *a); -int mp_read_signed_bin(mp_int *a, unsigned char *b, int c); -int mp_to_signed_bin(mp_int *a, unsigned char *b); -\end{alltt} -They operate essentially the same as the unsigned copies except they prefix the data with zero or non--zero -byte depending on the sign. If the sign is zpos (e.g. not negative) the prefix is zero, otherwise the prefix -is non--zero. - -\chapter{Algebraic Functions} -\section{Extended Euclidean Algorithm} -\index{mp\_exteuclid} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_exteuclid(mp_int *a, mp_int *b, - mp_int *U1, mp_int *U2, mp_int *U3); -\end{alltt} - -This finds the triple U1/U2/U3 using the Extended Euclidean algorithm such that the following equation holds. - -\begin{equation} -a \cdot U1 + b \cdot U2 = U3 -\end{equation} - -Any of the U1/U2/U3 paramters can be set to \textbf{NULL} if they are not desired. - -\section{Greatest Common Divisor} -\index{mp\_gcd} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_gcd (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} -This will compute the greatest common divisor of $a$ and $b$ and store it in $c$. - -\section{Least Common Multiple} -\index{mp\_lcm} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_lcm (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} -This will compute the least common multiple of $a$ and $b$ and store it in $c$. - -\section{Jacobi Symbol} -\index{mp\_jacobi} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_jacobi (mp_int * a, mp_int * p, int *c) -\end{alltt} -This will compute the Jacobi symbol for $a$ with respect to $p$. If $p$ is prime this essentially computes the Legendre -symbol. The result is stored in $c$ and can take on one of three values $\lbrace -1, 0, 1 \rbrace$. If $p$ is prime -then the result will be $-1$ when $a$ is not a quadratic residue modulo $p$. The result will be $0$ if $a$ divides $p$ -and the result will be $1$ if $a$ is a quadratic residue modulo $p$. - -\section{Modular Inverse} -\index{mp\_invmod} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_invmod (mp_int * a, mp_int * b, mp_int * c) -\end{alltt} -Computes the multiplicative inverse of $a$ modulo $b$ and stores the result in $c$ such that $ac \equiv 1 \mbox{ (mod }b\mbox{)}$. - -\section{Single Digit Functions} - -For those using small numbers (\textit{snicker snicker}) there are several ``helper'' functions - -\index{mp\_add\_d} \index{mp\_sub\_d} \index{mp\_mul\_d} \index{mp\_div\_d} \index{mp\_mod\_d} -\begin{alltt} -int mp_add_d(mp_int *a, mp_digit b, mp_int *c); -int mp_sub_d(mp_int *a, mp_digit b, mp_int *c); -int mp_mul_d(mp_int *a, mp_digit b, mp_int *c); -int mp_div_d(mp_int *a, mp_digit b, mp_int *c, mp_digit *d); -int mp_mod_d(mp_int *a, mp_digit b, mp_digit *c); -\end{alltt} - -These work like the full mp\_int capable variants except the second parameter $b$ is a mp\_digit. These -functions fairly handy if you have to work with relatively small numbers since you will not have to allocate -an entire mp\_int to store a number like $1$ or $2$. - -\input{bn.ind} - -\end{document} |