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authorVictor Stinner <victor.stinner@gmail.com>2013-06-15 01:37:45 (GMT)
committerVictor Stinner <victor.stinner@gmail.com>2013-06-15 01:37:45 (GMT)
commitd016900080da070efbe71289e1f959c52b473ce6 (patch)
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-rw-r--r--Doc/library/types.rst30
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diff --git a/Doc/library/enum.rst b/Doc/library/enum.rst
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+:mod:`enum` --- Support for enumerations
+========================================
+
+.. module:: enum
+.. :synopsis: enumerations are sets of symbolic names bound to unique, constant
+ values.
+.. :moduleauthor:: Ethan Furman <ethan@stoneleaf.us>
+.. :sectionauthor:: Barry Warsaw <barry@python.org>,
+.. :sectionauthor:: Eli Bendersky <eliben@gmail.com>,
+.. :sectionauthor:: Ethan Furman <ethan@stoneleaf.us>
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/enum.py`
+
+----------------
+
+An enumeration is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique, constant
+values. Within an enumeration, the members can be compared by identity, and
+the enumeration itself can be iterated over.
+
+This module defines two enumeration classes that can be used to define unique
+sets of names and values: :class:`Enum` and :class:`IntEnum`.
+
+Creating an Enum
+----------------
+
+Enumerations are created using the :keyword:`class` syntax, which makes them
+easy to read and write. An alternative creation method is described in
+`Functional API`_. To define an enumeration, subclass :class:`Enum` as
+follows::
+
+ >>> from enum import Enum
+ >>> class Color(Enum):
+ ... red = 1
+ ... green = 2
+ ... blue = 3
+
+**A note on nomenclature**: we call :class:`Color` an *enumeration* (or *enum*)
+and :attr:`Color.red`, :attr:`Color.green` are *enumeration members* (or
+*enum members*). Enumeration members also have *values* (the value of
+:attr:`Color.red` is ``1``, etc.)
+
+Enumeration members have human readable string representations::
+
+ >>> print(Color.red)
+ Color.red
+
+...while their ``repr`` has more information::
+
+ >>> print(repr(Color.red))
+ <Color.red: 1>
+
+The *type* of an enumeration member is the enumeration it belongs to::
+
+ >>> type(Color.red)
+ <enum 'Color'>
+ >>> isinstance(Color.green, Color)
+ True
+ >>>
+
+Enum members also have a property that contains just their item name::
+
+ >>> print(Color.red.name)
+ red
+
+Enumerations support iteration, in definition order::
+
+ >>> class Shake(Enum):
+ ... vanilla = 7
+ ... chocolate = 4
+ ... cookies = 9
+ ... mint = 3
+ ...
+ >>> for shake in Shake:
+ ... print(shake)
+ ...
+ Shake.vanilla
+ Shake.chocolate
+ Shake.cookies
+ Shake.mint
+
+Enumeration members are hashable, so they can be used in dictionaries and sets::
+
+ >>> apples = {}
+ >>> apples[Color.red] = 'red delicious'
+ >>> apples[Color.green] = 'granny smith'
+ >>> apples == {Color.red: 'red delicious', Color.green: 'granny smith'}
+ True
+
+
+Programmatic access to enumeration members
+------------------------------------------
+
+Sometimes it's useful to access members in enumerations programmatically (i.e.
+situations where ``Color.red`` won't do because the exact color is not known
+at program-writing time). ``Enum`` allows such access::
+
+ >>> Color(1)
+ <Color.red: 1>
+ >>> Color(3)
+ <Color.blue: 3>
+
+If you want to access enum members by *name*, use item access::
+
+ >>> Color['red']
+ <Color.red: 1>
+ >>> Color['green']
+ <Color.green: 2>
+
+
+Duplicating enum members and values
+-----------------------------------
+
+Having two enum members with the same name is invalid::
+
+ >>> class Shape(Enum):
+ ... square = 2
+ ... square = 3
+ ...
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ TypeError: Attempted to reuse key: 'square'
+
+However, two enum members are allowed to have the same value. Given two members
+A and B with the same value (and A defined first), B is an alias to A. By-value
+lookup of the value of A and B will return A. By-name lookup of B will also
+return A::
+
+ >>> class Shape(Enum):
+ ... square = 2
+ ... diamond = 1
+ ... circle = 3
+ ... alias_for_square = 2
+ ...
+ >>> Shape.square
+ <Shape.square: 2>
+ >>> Shape.alias_for_square
+ <Shape.square: 2>
+ >>> Shape(2)
+ <Shape.square: 2>
+
+Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases::
+
+ >>> list(Shape)
+ [<Shape.square: 2>, <Shape.diamond: 1>, <Shape.circle: 3>]
+
+The special attribute ``__members__`` is an ordered dictionary mapping names
+to members. It includes all names defined in the enumeration, including the
+aliases::
+
+ >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
+ ... name, member
+ ...
+ ('square', <Shape.square: 2>)
+ ('diamond', <Shape.diamond: 1>)
+ ('circle', <Shape.circle: 3>)
+ ('alias_for_square', <Shape.square: 2>)
+
+The ``__members__`` attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access to
+the enumeration members. For example, finding all the aliases::
+
+ >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
+ ['alias_for_square']
+
+Comparisons
+-----------
+
+Enumeration members are compared by identity::
+
+ >>> Color.red is Color.red
+ True
+ >>> Color.red is Color.blue
+ False
+ >>> Color.red is not Color.blue
+ True
+
+Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are *not* supported. Enum
+members are not integers (but see `IntEnum`_ below)::
+
+ >>> Color.red < Color.blue
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+ TypeError: unorderable types: Color() < Color()
+
+Equality comparisons are defined though::
+
+ >>> Color.blue == Color.red
+ False
+ >>> Color.blue != Color.red
+ True
+ >>> Color.blue == Color.blue
+ True
+
+Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
+(again, class:`IntEnum` was explicitly designed to behave differently, see
+below)::
+
+ >>> Color.blue == 2
+ False
+
+
+Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
+----------------------------------------------
+
+The examples above use integers for enumeration values. Using integers is
+short and handy (and provided by default by the `Functional API`_), but not
+strictly enforced. In the vast majority of use-cases, one doesn't care what
+the actual value of an enumeration is. But if the value *is* important,
+enumerations can have arbitrary values.
+
+Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special methods as
+usual. If we have this enumeration::
+
+ >>> class Mood(Enum):
+ ... funky = 1
+ ... happy = 3
+ ...
+ ... def describe(self):
+ ... # self is the member here
+ ... return self.name, self.value
+ ...
+ ... def __str__(self):
+ ... return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
+ ...
+ ... @classmethod
+ ... def favorite_mood(cls):
+ ... # cls here is the enumeration
+ ... return cls.happy
+
+Then::
+
+ >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
+ <Mood.happy: 3>
+ >>> Mood.happy.describe()
+ ('happy', 3)
+ >>> str(Mood.funky)
+ 'my custom str! 1'
+
+The rules for what is allowed are as follows: _sunder_ names (starting and
+ending with a single underscore) are reserved by enum and cannot be used;
+all other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this
+enumeration, with the exception of *__dunder__* names and descriptors (methods
+are also descriptors).
+
+Note: if your enumeration defines :meth:`__new__` and/or :meth:`__init__` then
+whatever value(s) were given to the enum member will be passed into those
+methods. See `Planet`_ for an example.
+
+
+Restricted subclassing of enumerations
+--------------------------------------
+
+Subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does not define
+any members. So this is forbidden::
+
+ >>> class MoreColor(Color):
+ ... pink = 17
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ TypeError: Cannot extend enumerations
+
+But this is allowed::
+
+ >>> class Foo(Enum):
+ ... def some_behavior(self):
+ ... pass
+ ...
+ >>> class Bar(Foo):
+ ... happy = 1
+ ... sad = 2
+ ...
+
+Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a violation of
+some important invariants of types and instances. On the other hand, it makes
+sense to allow sharing some common behavior between a group of enumerations.
+(See `OrderedEnum`_ for an example.)
+
+
+Pickling
+--------
+
+Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled::
+
+ >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
+ >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
+ >>> Fruit.tomato is loads(dumps(Fruit.tomato))
+ True
+
+The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be defined in
+the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to be importable
+from that module.
+
+.. warning::
+
+ In order to support the singleton nature of enumeration members, pickle
+ protocol version 2 or higher must be used.
+
+
+Functional API
+--------------
+
+The :class:`Enum` class is callable, providing the following functional API::
+
+ >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ant bee cat dog')
+ >>> Animal
+ <enum 'Animal'>
+ >>> Animal.ant
+ <Animal.ant: 1>
+ >>> Animal.ant.value
+ 1
+ >>> list(Animal)
+ [<Animal.ant: 1>, <Animal.bee: 2>, <Animal.cat: 3>, <Animal.dog: 4>]
+
+The semantics of this API resemble :class:`namedtuple`. The first argument
+of the call to :class:`Enum` is the name of the enumeration.
+
+The second argument is the *source* of enumeration member names. It can be a
+whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a sequence of
+2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g. dictionary) of names to
+values. The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to
+enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1. A
+new class derived from :class:`Enum` is returned. In other words, the above
+assignment to :class:`Animal` is equivalent to::
+
+ >>> class Animals(Enum):
+ ... ant = 1
+ ... bee = 2
+ ... cat = 3
+ ... dog = 4
+
+Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame stack
+implementation details are used to try and figure out which module the
+enumeration is being created in (e.g. it will fail if you use a utility
+function in separate module, and also may not work on IronPython or Jython).
+The solution is to specify the module name explicitly as follows::
+
+ >>> Animals = Enum('Animals', 'ant bee cat dog', module=__name__)
+
+Derived Enumerations
+====================
+
+IntEnum
+-------
+
+A variation of :class:`Enum` is provided which is also a subclass of
+:class:`int`. Members of an :class:`IntEnum` can be compared to integers;
+by extension, integer enumerations of different types can also be compared
+to each other::
+
+ >>> from enum import IntEnum
+ >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
+ ... circle = 1
+ ... square = 2
+ ...
+ >>> class Request(IntEnum):
+ ... post = 1
+ ... get = 2
+ ...
+ >>> Shape == 1
+ False
+ >>> Shape.circle == 1
+ True
+ >>> Shape.circle == Request.post
+ True
+
+However, they still can't be compared to standard :class:`Enum` enumerations::
+
+ >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
+ ... circle = 1
+ ... square = 2
+ ...
+ >>> class Color(Enum):
+ ... red = 1
+ ... green = 2
+ ...
+ >>> Shape.circle == Color.red
+ False
+
+:class:`IntEnum` values behave like integers in other ways you'd expect::
+
+ >>> int(Shape.circle)
+ 1
+ >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.circle]
+ 'b'
+ >>> [i for i in range(Shape.square)]
+ [0, 1]
+
+For the vast majority of code, :class:`Enum` is strongly recommended,
+since :class:`IntEnum` breaks some semantic promises of an enumeration (by
+being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other
+unrelated enumerations). It should be used only in special cases where
+there's no other choice; for example, when integer constants are
+replaced with enumerations and backwards compatibility is required with code
+that still expects integers.
+
+
+Others
+------
+
+While :class:`IntEnum` is part of the :mod:`enum` module, it would be very
+simple to implement independently::
+
+ class IntEnum(int, Enum):
+ pass
+
+This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example
+a :class:`StrEnum` that mixes in :class:`str` instead of :class:`int`.
+
+Some rules:
+
+1. When subclassing :class:`Enum`, mix-in types must appear before
+ :class:`Enum` itself in the sequence of bases, as in the :class:`IntEnum`
+ example above.
+2. While :class:`Enum` can have members of any type, once you mix in an
+ additional type, all the members must have values of that type, e.g.
+ :class:`int` above. This restriction does not apply to mix-ins which only
+ add methods and don't specify another data type such as :class:`int` or
+ :class:`str`.
+3. When another data type is mixed in, the :attr:`value` attribute is *not the
+ same* as the enum member itself, although it is equivalant and will compare
+ equal.
+
+
+Interesting examples
+====================
+
+While :class:`Enum` and :class:`IntEnum` are expected to cover the majority of
+use-cases, they cannot cover them all. Here are recipes for some different
+types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as examples for creating
+one's own.
+
+
+AutoNumber
+----------
+
+Avoids having to specify the value for each enumeration member::
+
+ >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
+ ... def __new__(cls):
+ ... value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
+ ... obj = object.__new__(cls)
+ ... obj._value = value
+ ... return obj
+ ...
+ >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
+ ... red = ()
+ ... green = ()
+ ... blue = ()
+ ...
+ >>> Color.green.value == 2
+ True
+
+
+UniqueEnum
+----------
+
+Raises an error if a duplicate member name is found instead of creating an
+alias::
+
+ >>> class UniqueEnum(Enum):
+ ... def __init__(self, *args):
+ ... cls = self.__class__
+ ... if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
+ ... a = self.name
+ ... e = cls(self.value).name
+ ... raise ValueError(
+ ... "aliases not allowed in UniqueEnum: %r --> %r"
+ ... % (a, e))
+ ...
+ >>> class Color(UniqueEnum):
+ ... red = 1
+ ... green = 2
+ ... blue = 3
+ ... grene = 2
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ ValueError: aliases not allowed in UniqueEnum: 'grene' --> 'green'
+
+
+OrderedEnum
+-----------
+
+An ordered enumeration that is not based on :class:`IntEnum` and so maintains
+the normal :class:`Enum` invariants (such as not being comparable to other
+enumerations)::
+
+ >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
+ ... def __ge__(self, other):
+ ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+ ... return self._value >= other._value
+ ... return NotImplemented
+ ... def __gt__(self, other):
+ ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+ ... return self._value > other._value
+ ... return NotImplemented
+ ... def __le__(self, other):
+ ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+ ... return self._value <= other._value
+ ... return NotImplemented
+ ... def __lt__(self, other):
+ ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
+ ... return self._value < other._value
+ ... return NotImplemented
+ ...
+ >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
+ ... A = 5
+ ... B = 4
+ ... C = 3
+ ... D = 2
+ ... F = 1
+ ...
+ >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
+ True
+
+
+Planet
+------
+
+If :meth:`__new__` or :meth:`__init__` is defined the value of the enum member
+will be passed to those methods::
+
+ >>> class Planet(Enum):
+ ... MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
+ ... VENUS = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
+ ... EARTH = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
+ ... MARS = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
+ ... JUPITER = (1.9e+27, 7.1492e7)
+ ... SATURN = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
+ ... URANUS = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
+ ... NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
+ ... def __init__(self, mass, radius):
+ ... self.mass = mass # in kilograms
+ ... self.radius = radius # in meters
+ ... @property
+ ... def surface_gravity(self):
+ ... # universal gravitational constant (m3 kg-1 s-2)
+ ... G = 6.67300E-11
+ ... return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
+ ...
+ >>> Planet.EARTH.value
+ (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
+ >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
+ 9.802652743337129
diff --git a/Doc/library/imp.rst b/Doc/library/imp.rst
index 890c171..c6a07ca 100644
--- a/Doc/library/imp.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/imp.rst
@@ -112,6 +112,9 @@ This module provides an interface to the mechanisms used to implement the
Return a new empty module object called *name*. This object is *not* inserted
in ``sys.modules``.
+ .. deprecated:: 3.4
+ Use :class:`types.ModuleType` instead.
+
.. function:: reload(module)
diff --git a/Doc/library/types.rst b/Doc/library/types.rst
index 95132e8..c4f57e4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/types.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/types.rst
@@ -107,9 +107,35 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
C".)
-.. data:: ModuleType
+.. class:: ModuleType(name, doc=None)
- The type of modules.
+ The type of :term:`modules <module>`. Constructor takes the name of the
+ module to be created and optionally its :term:`docstring`.
+
+ .. attribute:: __doc__
+
+ The :term:`docstring` of the module. Defaults to ``None``.
+
+ .. attribute:: __loader__
+
+ The :term:`loader` which loaded the module. Defaults to ``None``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
+
+ .. attribute:: __name__
+
+ The name of the module.
+
+ .. attribute:: __package__
+
+ Which :term:`package` a module belongs to. If the module is top-level
+ (i.e. not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set
+ to ``''``, else it should be set to the name of the package (which can be
+ :attr:`__name__` if the module is a package itself). Defaults to ``None``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
.. data:: TracebackType