Checking in the doc file for "timsort". There's way too much here to

stuff into code comments, and lots of it is going to be useful again (but
hard to predict exactly which parts of it ...).

1 files changed, 618 insertions, 0 deletions

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+Intro
+-----
+This describes an adaptive, stable, natural mergesort, modestly called
+timsort (hey, I earned it <wink>).  It has supernatural performance on many
+kinds of partially ordered arrays (less than lg(N!) comparisons needed, and
+as few as N-1), yet as fast as Python's previous highly tuned samplesort
+hybrid on random arrays.
+
+In a nutshell, the main routine marches over the array once, left to right,
+alternately identifying the next run, then merging it into the previous
+runs "intelligently".  Everything else is complication for speed, and some
+hard-won measure of memory efficiency.
+
+
+Comparison with Python's Samplesort Hybrid
+------------------------------------------
++ timsort can require a temp array containing as many as N//2 pointers,
+  which means as many as 2*N extra bytes on 32-bit boxes.  It can be
+  expected to require a temp array this large when sorting random data; on
+  data with significant structure, it may get away without using any extra
+  heap memory.  This appears to be the strongest argument against it, but
+  compared to the size of an object, 2 temp bytes worst-case (also expected-
+  case for random data) doesn't scare me much.
+
+  It turns out that Perl is moving to a stable mergesort, and the code for
+  that appears always to require a temp array with room for at least N
+  pointers. (Note that I wouldn't want to do that even if space weren't an
+  issue; I believe its efforts at memory frugality also save timsort
+  significant pointer-copying costs, and allow it to have a smaller working
+  set.)
+
++ Across about four hours of generating random arrays, and sorting them
+  under both methods, samplesort required about 1.5% more comparisons
+  (the program is at the end of this file).
+
++ In real life, this may be faster or slower on random arrays than
+  samplesort was, depending on platform quirks.  Since it does fewer
+  comparisons on average, it can be expected to do better the more
+  expensive a comparison function is.  OTOH, it does more data movement
+  (pointer copying) than samplesort, and that may negate its small
+  comparison advantage (depending on platform quirks) unless comparison
+  is very expensive.
+
++ On arrays with many kinds of pre-existing order, this blows samplesort out
+  of the water.  It's significantly faster than samplesort even on some
+  cases samplesort was special-casing the snot out of.  I believe that lists
+  very often do have exploitable partial order in real life, and this is the
+  strongest argument in favor of timsort (indeed, samplesort's special cases
+  for extreme partial order are appreciated by real users, and timsort goes
+  much deeper than those, in particular naturally covering every case where
+  someone has suggested "and it would be cool if list.sort() had a special
+  case for this too ... and for that ...").
+
++ Here are exact comparison counts across all the tests in sortperf.py,
+  when run with arguments "15 20 1".
+
+  First the trivial cases, trivial for samplesort because it special-cased
+  them, and trivial for timsort because it naturally works on runs.  Within
+  an "n" block, the first line gives the # of compares done by samplesort,
+  the second line by timsort, and the third line is the percentage by
+  which the samplesort count exceeds the timsort count:
+
+      n   \sort   /sort   =sort
+-------  ------  ------  ------
+  32768   32768   32767   32767  samplesort
+          32767   32767   32767  timsort
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%  (samplesort - timsort) / timsort
+
+  65536   65536   65535   65535
+          65535   65535   65535
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%
+
+ 131072  131072  131071  131071
+         131071  131071  131071
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%
+
+ 262144  262144  262143  262143
+         262143  262143  262143
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%
+
+ 524288  524288  524287  524287
+         524287  524287  524287
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%
+
+1048576 1048576 1048575 1048575
+        1048575 1048575 1048575
+          0.00%   0.00%   0.00%
+
+  The algorithms are effectively identical in these cases, except that
+  timsort does one less compare in \sort.
+
+  Now for the more interesting cases.  lg(n!) is the information-theoretic
+  limit for the best any comparison-based sorting algorithm can do on
+  average (across all permutations).  When a method gets significantly
+  below that, it's either astronomically lucky, or is finding exploitable
+  structure in the data.
+
+      n   lg(n!)    *sort     3sort    +sort    ~sort     !sort
+-------  -------   ------  --------  -------  -------  --------
+  32768   444255   453084    453604    32908   130484    469132  samplesort
+                   449235     33019    33016   188720     65534  timsort
+                    0.86%  1273.77%   -0.33%  -30.86%   615.86%  %ch from timsort
+
+  65536   954037   973111    970464    65686   260019   1004597
+                   963924     65767    65802   377634    131070
+                    0.95%  1375.61%   -0.18%  -31.15%   666.46%
+
+ 131072  2039137  2100019   2102708   131232   555035   2161268
+                  2058863    131422   131363   755476    262142
+                    2.00%  1499.97%   -0.10%  -26.53%   724.46%
+
+ 262144  4340409  4461471   4442796   262314  1107826   4584316
+                  4380148    262446   262466  1511174    524286
+                    1.86%  1592.84%   -0.06%  -26.69%   774.39%
+
+ 524288  9205096  9448146   9368681   524468  2218562   9691553
+                  9285454    524576   524626  3022584   1048574
+                    1.75%  1685.95%   -0.03%  -26.60%   824.26%
+
+1048576 19458756 19950541  20307955  1048766  4430616  20433371
+                 19621100   1048854  1048933  6045418   2097150
+                    1.68%  1836.20%   -0.02%  -26.71%   874.34%
+
+  Discussion of cases:
+
+  *sort:  There's no structure in random data to exploit, so the theoretical
+  limit is lg(n!).  Both methods get close to that, and timsort is hugging
+  it (indeed, in a *marginal* sense, it's a spectacular improvement --
+  there's only about 1% left before hitting the wall, and timsort knows
+  darned well it's doing compares that won't pay on random data -- but so
+  does the samplesort hybrid).  For contrast, Hoare's original random-pivot
+  quicksort does about 39% more compares than the limit, and the median-of-3
+  variant about 19% more.
+
+  3sort and !sort:  No contest; there's structure in this data, but not of
+  the specific kinds samplesort special-cases.  Note that structure in !sort
+  wasn't put there on purpose -- it was crafted as a worst case for a
+  previous quicksort implementation.  That timsort nails it came as a
+  surprise to me (although it's obvious in retrospect).
+
+  +sort:  samplesort special-cases this data, and does a few less compares
+  than timsort.  However, timsort runs this case significantly faster on all
+  boxes we have timings for, because timsort is in the business of merging
+  runs efficiently, while samplesort does much more data movement in this
+  (for it) special case.
+
+  ~sort:  samplesort's special cases for large masses of equal elements are
+  extremely effective on ~sort's specific data pattern, and timsort just
+  isn't going to get close to that, despite that it's clearly getting a
+  great deal of benefit out of the duplicates (the # of compares is much less
+  than lg(n!)).  ~sort has a perfectly uniform distribution of just 4
+  distinct values, and as the distribution gets more skewed, samplesort's
+  equal-element gimmicks become less effective, while timsort's adaptive
+  strategies find more to exploit; in a database supplied by Kevin Altis, a
+  sort on its highly skewed "on which stock exchange does this company's
+  stock trade?" field ran over twice as fast under timsort.
+
+  However, despite that timsort does many more comparisons on ~sort, and
+  that on several platforms ~sort runs highly significantly slower under
+  timsort, on other platforms ~sort runs highly significantly faster under
+  timsort.  No other kind of data has shown this wild x-platform behavior,
+  and we don't have an explanation for it.  The only thing I can think of
+  that could transform what "should be" highly significant slowdowns into
+  highly significant speedups on some boxes are catastrophic cache effects
+  in samplesort.
+
+  But timsort "should be" slower than samplesort on ~sort, so it's hard
+  to count that it isn't on some boxes as a strike against it <wink>.
+
+
+A detailed description of timsort follows.
+
+Runs
+----
+count_run() returns the # of elements in the next run.  A run is either
+"ascending", which means non-decreasing:
+
+    a0 <= a1 <= a2 <= ...
+
+or "descending", which means strictly decreasing:
+
+    a0 > a1 > a2 > ...
+
+Note that a run is always at least 2 long, unless we start at the array's
+last element.
+
+The definition of descending is strict, because the main routine reverses
+a descending run in-place, transforming a descending run into an ascending
+run.  Reversal is done via the obvious fast "swap elements starting at each
+end, and converge at the middle" method, and that can violate stability if
+the slice contains any equal elements.  Using a strict definition of
+descending ensures that a descending run contains distinct elements.
+
+If an array is random, it's very unlikely we'll see long runs.  If a natural
+run contains less than minrun elements (see next section), the main loop
+artificially boosts it to minrun elements, via a stable binary insertion sort
+applied to the right number of array elements following the short natural
+run.  In a random array, *all* runs are likely to be minrun long as a
+result.  This has two primary good effects:
+
+1. Random data strongly tends then toward perfectly balanced (both runs have
+   the same length) merges, which is the most efficient way to proceed when
+   data is random.
+
+2. Because runs are never very short, the rest of the code doesn't make
+   heroic efforts to shave a few cycles off per-merge overheads.  For
+   example, reasonable use of function calls is made, rather than trying to
+   inline everything.  Since there are no more than N/minrun runs to begin
+   with, a few "extra" function calls per merge is barely measurable.
+
+
+Computing minrun
+----------------
+If N < 64, minrun is N.  IOW, binary insertion sort is used for the whole
+array then; it's hard to beat that given the overheads of trying something
+fancier.
+
+When N is a power of 2, testing on random data showed that minrun values of
+16, 32, 64 and 128 worked about equally well.  At 256 the data-movement cost
+in binary insertion sort clearly hurt, and at 8 the increase in the number
+of function calls clearly hurt.  Picking *some* power of 2 is important
+here, so that the merges end up perfectly balanced (see next section).  We
+pick 32 as a good value in the sweet range; picking a value at the low end
+allows the adaptive gimmicks more opportunity to exploit shorter natural
+runs.
+
+Because sortperf.py only tries powers of 2, it took a long time to notice
+that 32 isn't a good choice for the general case!  Consider N=2112:
+
+>>> divmod(2112, 32)
+(66, 0)
+>>>
+
+If the data is randomly ordered, we're very likely to end up with 66 runs
+each of length 32.  The first 64 of these trigger a sequence of perfectly
+balanced merges (see next section), leaving runs of lengths 2048 and 64 to
+merge at the end.  The adaptive gimmicks can do that with fewer than 2048+64
+compares, but it's still more compares than necessary, and-- mergesort's
+bugaboo relative to samplesort --a lot more data movement (O(N) copies just
+to get 64 elements into place).
+
+If we take minrun=33 in this case, then we're very likely to end up with 64
+runs each of length 33, and then all merges are perfectly balanced.  Better!
+
+What we want to avoid is picking minrun such that in
+
+    q, r = divmod(N, minrun)
+
+q is a power of 2 and r>0 (then the last merge only gets r elements into
+place, and r<minrun is small compared to N), or r=0 and q a little larger
+than a power of 2 (then we've got a case similar to "2112", again leaving
+too little work for the last merge to do).
+
+Instead we pick a minrun in range(32, 65) such that N/minrun is exactly a
+power of 2, or if that isn't possible, is close to, but strictly less than,
+a power of 2.  This is easier to do than it may sound:  take the first 6
+bits of N, and add 1 if any of the remaining bits are set.  In fact, that
+rule covers every case in this section, including small N and exact powers
+of 2; merge_compute_minrun() is a deceptively simple function.
+
+
+The Merge Pattern
+-----------------
+In order to exploit regularities in the data, we're merging on natural
+run lengths, and they can become wildly unbalanced.  That's a Good Thing
+for this sort!  It means we have to find a way to manage an assortment of
+potentially very different run lengths, though.
+
+Stability constrains permissible merging patterns.  For example, if we have
+3 consecutive runs of lengths
+
+    A:10000  B:20000  C:10000
+
+we dare not merge A with C first, because if A, B and C happen to contain
+a common element, it would get out of order wrt its occurence(s) in B.  The
+merging must be done as (A+B)+C or A+(B+C) instead.
+
+So merging is always done on two consecutive runs at a time, and in-place,
+although this may require some temp memory (more on that later).
+
+When a run is identified, its base address and length are pushed on a stack
+in the MergeState struct.  merge_collapse() is then called to see whether it
+should merge it with preceding run(s).  We would like to delay merging as
+long as possible in order to exploit patterns that may come up later, but we
+like even more to do merging as soon as possible to exploit that the run just
+found is still high in the memory hierarchy.  We also can't delay merging
+"too long" because it consumes memory to remember the runs that are still
+unmerged, and the stack has a fixed size.
+
+What turned out to be a good compromise maintains two invariants on the
+stack entries, where A, B and C are the lengths of the three righmost not-yet
+merged slices:
+
+1.  A > B+C
+2.  B > C
+
+Note that, by induction, #2 implies the lengths of pending runs form a
+decreasing sequence.  #1 implies that, reading the lengths right to left,
+the pending-run lengths grow at least as fast as the Fibonacci numbers.
+Therefore the stack can never grow larger than about log_base_phi(N) entries,
+where phi = (1+sqrt(5))/2 ~= 1.618.  Thus a small # of stack slots suffice
+for very large arrays.
+
+If A <= B+C, the smaller of A and C is merged with B (ties favor C, for the
+freshness-in-cache reason), and the new run replaces the A,B or B,C entries;
+e.g., if the last 3 entries are
+
+    A:30  B:20  C:10
+
+then B is merged with C, leaving
+
+    A:30  BC:30
+
+on the stack.  Or if they were
+
+    A:500  B:400:  C:1000
+
+then A is merged with B, leaving
+
+    AB:900  C:1000
+
+on the stack.
+
+In both examples, the stack configuration after the merge still violates
+invariant #2, and merge_collapse() goes on to continue merging runs until
+both invariants are satisfied.  As an extreme case, suppose we didn't do the
+minrun gimmick, and natural runs were of lengths 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2,
+and 2.  Nothing would get merged until the final 2 was seen, and that would
+trigger 7 perfectly balanced merges.
+
+The thrust of these rules when they trigger merging is to balance the run
+lengths as closely as possible, while keeping a low bound on the number of
+runs we have to remember.  This is maximally effective for random data,
+where all runs are likely to be of (artificially forced) length minrun, and
+then we get a sequence of perfectly balanced merges (with, perhaps, some
+oddballs at the end).
+
+OTOH, one reason this sort is so good for partly ordered data has to do
+with wildly unbalanced run lengths.
+
+
+Merge Memory
+------------
+Merging adjacent runs of lengths A and B in-place is very difficult.
+Theoretical constructions are known that can do it, but they're too difficult
+and slow for practical use.  But if we have temp memory equal to min(A, B),
+it's easy.
+
+If A is smaller (function merge_lo), copy A to a temp array, leave B alone,
+and then we can do the obvious merge algorithm left to right, from the temp
+area and B, starting the stores into where A used to live.  There's always a
+free area in the original area comprising a number of elements equal to the
+number not yet merged from the temp array (trivially true at the start;
+proceed by induction).  The only tricky bit is that if a comparison raises an
+exception, we have to remember to copy the remaining elements back in from
+the temp area, lest the array end up with duplicate entries from B.  But
+that's exactly the same thing we need to do if we reach the end of B first,
+so the exit code is pleasantly common to both the normal and error cases.
+
+If B is smaller (function merge_hi, which is merge_lo's "mirror image"),
+much the same, except that we need to merge right to left, copying B into a
+temp array and starting the stores at the right end of where B used to live.
+
+A refinement:  When we're about to merge adjacent runs A and B, we first do
+a form of binary search (more on that later) to see where B[0] should end up
+in A.  Elements in A preceding that point are already in their final
+positions, effectively shrinking the size of A.  Likewise we also search to
+see where A[-1] should end up in B, and elements of B after that point can
+also be ignored.  This cuts the amount of temp memory needed by the same
+amount.
+
+These preliminary searches may not pay off, and can be expected *not* to
+repay their cost if the data is random.  But they can win huge in all of
+time, copying, and memory savings when they do pay, so this is one of the
+"per-merge overheads" mentioned above that we're happy to endure because
+there is at most one very short run.  It's generally true in this algorithm
+that we're willing to gamble a little to win a lot, even though the net
+expectation is negative for random data.
+
+
+Merge Algorithms
+----------------
+merge_lo() and merge_hi() are where the bulk of the time is spent.  merge_lo
+deals with runs where A <= B, and merge_hi where A > B.  They don't know
+whether the data is clustered or uniform, but a lovely thing about merging
+is that many kinds of clustering "reveal themselves" by how many times in a
+row the winning merge element comes from the same run.  We'll only discuss
+merge_lo here; merge_hi is exactly analogous.
+
+Merging begins in the usual, obvious way, comparing the first element of A
+to the first of B, and moving B[0] to the merge area if it's less than A[0],
+else moving A[0] to the merge area.  Call that the "one pair at a time"
+mode.  The only twist here is keeping track of how many times in a row "the
+winner" comes from the same run.
+
+If that count reaches MIN_GALLOP, we switch to "galloping mode".  Here
+we *search* B for where A[0] belongs, and move over all the B's before
+that point in one chunk to the merge area, then move A[0] to the merge
+area.  Then we search A for where B[0] belongs, and similarly move a
+slice of A in one chunk.  Then back to searching B for where A[0] belongs,
+etc.  We stay in galloping mode until both searches find slices to copy
+less than MIN_GALLOP elements long, at which point we go back to one-pair-
+at-a-time mode.
+
+
+Galloping
+---------
+Still without loss of generality, assume A is the shorter run.  In galloping
+mode, we first look for A[0] in B.  We do this via "galloping", comparing
+A[0] in turn to B[0], B[1], B[3], B[7], ..., B[2**j - 1], ..., until finding
+the k such that B[2**(k-1) - 1] < A[0] <= B[2**k - 1].  This takes at most
+roughly lg(B) comparisons, and, unlike a straight binary search, favors
+finding the right spot early in B (more on that later).
+
+After finding such a k, the region of uncertainty is reduced to 2**(k-1) - 1
+consecutive elements, and a straight binary search requires exactly k-1
+additional comparisons to nail it.  Then we copy all the B's up to that
+point in one chunk, and then copy A[0].  Note that no matter where A[0]
+belongs in B, the combination of galloping + binary search finds it in no
+more than about 2*lg(B) comparisons.
+
+If we did a straight binary search, we could find it in no more than
+ceiling(lg(B+1)) comparisons -- but straight binary search takes that many
+comparisons no matter where A[0] belongs.  Straight binary search thus loses
+to galloping unless the run is quite long, and we simply can't guess
+whether it is in advance.
+
+If data is random and runs have the same length, A[0] belongs at B[0] half
+the time, at B[1] a quarter of the time, and so on:  a consecutive winning
+sub-run in B of length k occurs with probability 1/2**(k+1).  So long
+winning sub-runs are extremely unlikely in random data, and guessing that a
+winning sub-run is going to be long is a dangerous game.
+
+OTOH, if data is lopsided or lumpy or contains many duplicates, long
+stretches of winning sub-runs are very likely, and cutting the number of
+comparisons needed to find one from O(B) to O(log B) is a huge win.
+
+Galloping compromises by getting out fast if there isn't a long winning
+sub-run, yet finding such very efficiently when they exist.
+
+I first learned about the galloping strategy in a related context; see:
+
+    "Adaptive Set Intersections, Unions, and Differences" (2000)
+    Erik D. Demaine, Alejandro López-Ortiz, J. Ian Munro
+
+and its followup(s).  An earlier paper called the same strategy
+"exponential search":
+
+   "Optimistic Sorting and Information Theoretic Complexity"
+   Peter McIlroy
+   SODA (Fourth Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms), pp
+   467-474, Austin, Texas, 25-27 January 1993.
+
+and it probably dates back to an earlier paper by Bentley and Yao.  The
+McIlory paper in particular has good analysis of a mergesort that's
+probably strongly related to this one in its galloping strategy.
+
+
+Galloping with a Broken Leg
+---------------------------
+So why don't we always gallop?  Because it can lose, on two counts:
+
+1. While we're willing to endure small per-run overheads, per-comparison
+   overheads are a different story.  Calling Yet Another Function per
+   comparison is expensive, and gallop_left() and gallop_right() are
+   too long-winded for sane inlining.
+
+2. Ignoring function-call overhead, galloping can-- alas --require more
+   comparisons than linear one-at-time search, depending on the data.
+
+#2 requires details.  If A[0] belongs before B[0], galloping requires 1
+compare to determine that, same as linear search, except it costs more
+to call the gallop function.  If A[0] belongs right before B[1], galloping
+requires 2 compares, again same as linear search.  On the third compare,
+galloping checks A[0] against B[3], and if it's <=, requires one more
+compare to determine whether A[0] belongs at B[2] or B[3].  That's a total
+of 4 compares, but if A[0] does belong at B[2], linear search would have
+discovered that in only 3 compares, and that's a huge loss!  Really.  It's
+an increase of 33% in the number of compares needed, and comparisons are
+expensive in Python.
+
+index in B where    # compares linear  # gallop  # binary  gallop
+A[0] belongs        search needs       compares  compares  total
+----------------    -----------------  --------  --------  ------
+               0                    1         1         0       1
+
+               1                    2         2         0       2
+
+               2                    3         3         1       4
+               3                    4         3         1       4
+
+               4                    5         4         2       6
+               5                    6         4         2       6
+               6                    7         4         2       6
+               7                    8         4         2       6
+
+               8                    9         5         3       8
+               9                   10         5         3       8
+              10                   11         5         3       8
+              11                   12         5         3       8
+                                        ...
+
+In general, if A[0] belongs at B[i], linear search requires i+1 comparisons
+to determine that, and galloping a total of 2*floor(lg(i))+2 comparisons.
+The advantage of galloping is unbounded as i grows, but it doesn't win at
+all until i=6.  Before then, it loses twice (at i=2 and i=4), and ties
+at the other values.  At and after i=6, galloping always wins.
+
+We can't guess in advance when it's going to win, though, so we do one pair
+at a time until the evidence seems strong that galloping may pay.  MIN_GALLOP
+is 8 as I type this, and that's pretty strong evidence.  However, if the data
+is random, it simply will trigger galloping mode purely by luck every now
+and again, and it's quite likely to hit one of the losing cases next.  8
+favors protecting against a slowdown on random data at the expense of giving
+up small wins on lightly clustered data, and tiny marginal wins on highly
+clustered data (they win huge anyway, and if you're getting a factor of
+10 speedup, another percent just isn't worth fighting for).
+
+
+Galloping Complication
+----------------------
+The description above was for merge_lo.  merge_hi has to merge "from the
+other end", and really needs to gallop starting at the last element in a run
+instead of the first.  Galloping from the first still works, but does more
+comparisons than it should (this is significant -- I timed it both ways).
+For this reason, the gallop_left() and gallop_right() functions have a
+"hint" argument, which is the index at which galloping should begin.  So
+galloping can actually start at any index, and proceed at offsets of 1, 3,
+7, 15, ... or -1, -3, -7, -15, ... from the starting index.
+
+In the code as I type it's always called with either 0 or n-1 (where n is
+the # of elements in a run).  It's tempting to try to do something fancier,
+melding galloping with some form of interpolation search; for example, if
+we're merging a run of length 1 with a run of length 10000, index 5000 is
+probably a better guess at the final result than either 0 or 9999.  But
+it's unclear how to generalize that intuition usefully, and merging of
+wildly unbalanced runs already enjoys excellent performance.
+
+
+Comparing Average # of Compares on Random Arrays
+------------------------------------------------
+Here list.sort() is samplesort, and list.msort() this sort:
+
+"""
+import random
+from time import clock as now
+
+def fill(n):
+    from random import random
+    return [random() for i in xrange(n)]
+
+def mycmp(x, y):
+    global ncmp
+    ncmp += 1
+    return cmp(x, y)
+
+def timeit(values, method):
+    global ncmp
+    X = values[:]
+    bound = getattr(X, method)
+    ncmp = 0
+    t1 = now()
+    bound(mycmp)
+    t2 = now()
+    return t2-t1, ncmp
+
+format = "%5s  %9.2f  %11d"
+f2     = "%5s  %9.2f  %11.2f"
+
+def drive():
+    count = sst = sscmp = mst = mscmp = nelts = 0
+    while True:
+        n = random.randrange(100000)
+        nelts += n
+        x = fill(n)
+
+        t, c = timeit(x, 'sort')
+        sst += t
+        sscmp += c
+
+        t, c = timeit(x, 'msort')
+        mst += t
+        mscmp += c
+
+        count += 1
+        if count % 10:
+            continue
+
+        print "count", count, "nelts", nelts
+        print format % ("sort",  sst, sscmp)
+        print format % ("msort", mst, mscmp)
+        print f2     % ("", (sst-mst)*1e2/mst, (sscmp-mscmp)*1e2/mscmp)
+
+drive()
+"""
+
+I ran this on Windows and kept using the computer lightly while it was
+running.  time.clock() is wall-clock time on Windows, with better than
+microsecond resolution.  samplesort started with a 1.52% #-of-comparisons
+disadvantage, fell quickly to 1.48%, and then fluctuated within that small
+range.  Here's the last chunk of output before I killed the job:
+
+count 2630 nelts 130906543
+ sort    6110.80   1937887573
+msort    6002.78   1909389381
+            1.80         1.49
+
+We've done nearly 2 billion comparisons apiece at Python speed there, and
+that's enough <wink>.
+
+For random arrays of size 2 (yes, there are only 2 interesting ones),
+samplesort has a 50%(!) comparison disadvantage.  This is a consequence of
+samplesort special-casing at most one ascending run at the start, then
+falling back to the general case if it doesn't find an ascending run
+immediately.  The consequence is that it ends up using two compares to sort
+[2, 1].  Gratifyingly, timsort doesn't do any special-casing, so had to be
+taught how to deal with mixtures of ascending and descending runs
+efficiently in all cases.