11 files changed, 244 insertions, 240 deletions

diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/__main__.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/__main__.py
index a12fe78..2910d6c 100755
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/__main__.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/__main__.py
@@ -10,10 +10,9 @@ import sys
 import time
 import token
 import traceback
-
 from typing import Tuple
 
-from pegen.build import Grammar, Parser, Tokenizer, ParserGenerator
+from pegen.build import Grammar, Parser, ParserGenerator, Tokenizer
 from pegen.validator import validate_grammar
 
 
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/build.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/build.py
index 6f0a091..bf01078 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/build.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/build.py
@@ -1,11 +1,10 @@
+import itertools
 import pathlib
 import shutil
-import tokenize
 import sysconfig
 import tempfile
-import itertools
-
-from typing import Optional, Tuple, List, IO, Set, Dict
+import tokenize
+from typing import IO, Dict, List, Optional, Set, Tuple
 
 from pegen.c_generator import CParserGenerator
 from pegen.grammar import Grammar
@@ -45,9 +44,9 @@ def compile_c_extension(
     of distutils (this is useful in case you want to use a temporary directory).
     """
     import distutils.log
-    from distutils.core import Distribution, Extension
-    from distutils.command.clean import clean  # type: ignore
     from distutils.command.build_ext import build_ext  # type: ignore
+    from distutils.command.clean import clean  # type: ignore
+    from distutils.core import Distribution, Extension
     from distutils.tests.support import fixup_build_ext  # type: ignore
 
     if verbose:
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/c_generator.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/c_generator.py
index e928fd3..d15e910 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/c_generator.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/c_generator.py
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 import ast
-from dataclasses import field, dataclass
 import re
-from typing import Any, Dict, IO, Optional, List, Text, Tuple, Set
+from dataclasses import dataclass, field
 from enum import Enum
+from typing import IO, Any, Dict, List, Optional, Set, Text, Tuple
 
 from pegen import grammar
 from pegen.grammar import (
@@ -27,7 +27,6 @@ from pegen.grammar import (
 )
 from pegen.parser_generator import ParserGenerator
 
-
 EXTENSION_PREFIX = """\
 #include "pegen.h"
 
@@ -120,23 +119,18 @@ class CCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
         self.exact_tokens = exact_tokens
         self.non_exact_tokens = non_exact_tokens
         self.cache: Dict[Any, FunctionCall] = {}
-        self.keyword_cache: Dict[str, int] = {}
-        self.soft_keywords: Set[str] = set()
 
     def keyword_helper(self, keyword: str) -> FunctionCall:
-        if keyword not in self.keyword_cache:
-            self.keyword_cache[keyword] = self.gen.keyword_type()
         return FunctionCall(
             assigned_variable="_keyword",
             function="_PyPegen_expect_token",
-            arguments=["p", self.keyword_cache[keyword]],
+            arguments=["p", self.gen.keywords[keyword]],
             return_type="Token *",
             nodetype=NodeTypes.KEYWORD,
             comment=f"token='{keyword}'",
         )
 
     def soft_keyword_helper(self, value: str) -> FunctionCall:
-        self.soft_keywords.add(value.replace('"', ""))
         return FunctionCall(
             assigned_variable="_keyword",
             function="_PyPegen_expect_soft_keyword",
@@ -200,20 +194,12 @@ class CCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
             )
 
     def visit_Rhs(self, node: Rhs) -> FunctionCall:
-        def can_we_inline(node: Rhs) -> int:
-            if len(node.alts) != 1 or len(node.alts[0].items) != 1:
-                return False
-            # If the alternative has an action we cannot inline
-            if getattr(node.alts[0], "action", None) is not None:
-                return False
-            return True
-
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        if can_we_inline(node):
+        if node.can_be_inlined:
             self.cache[node] = self.generate_call(node.alts[0].items[0])
         else:
-            name = self.gen.name_node(node)
+            name = self.gen.artifical_rule_from_rhs(node)
             self.cache[node] = FunctionCall(
                 assigned_variable=f"{name}_var",
                 function=f"{name}_rule",
@@ -306,7 +292,7 @@ class CCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def visit_Repeat0(self, node: Repeat0) -> FunctionCall:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_loop(node.node, False)
+        name = self.gen.artificial_rule_from_repeat(node.node, False)
         self.cache[node] = FunctionCall(
             assigned_variable=f"{name}_var",
             function=f"{name}_rule",
@@ -319,7 +305,7 @@ class CCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def visit_Repeat1(self, node: Repeat1) -> FunctionCall:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_loop(node.node, True)
+        name = self.gen.artificial_rule_from_repeat(node.node, True)
         self.cache[node] = FunctionCall(
             assigned_variable=f"{name}_var",
             function=f"{name}_rule",
@@ -332,7 +318,7 @@ class CCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def visit_Gather(self, node: Gather) -> FunctionCall:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_gather(node)
+        name = self.gen.artifical_rule_from_gather(node)
         self.cache[node] = FunctionCall(
             assigned_variable=f"{name}_var",
             function=f"{name}_rule",
@@ -429,7 +415,7 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         self.print(f"}}")
 
     def generate(self, filename: str) -> None:
-        self.collect_todo()
+        self.collect_rules()
         self.print(f"// @generated by pegen from {filename}")
         header = self.grammar.metas.get("header", EXTENSION_PREFIX)
         if header:
@@ -439,11 +425,11 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
             self.print(subheader)
         self._setup_keywords()
         self._setup_soft_keywords()
-        for i, (rulename, rule) in enumerate(self.todo.items(), 1000):
+        for i, (rulename, rule) in enumerate(self.all_rules.items(), 1000):
             comment = "  // Left-recursive" if rule.left_recursive else ""
             self.print(f"#define {rulename}_type {i}{comment}")
         self.print()
-        for rulename, rule in self.todo.items():
+        for rulename, rule in self.all_rules.items():
             if rule.is_loop() or rule.is_gather():
                 type = "asdl_seq *"
             elif rule.type:
@@ -452,13 +438,11 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
                 type = "void *"
             self.print(f"static {type}{rulename}_rule(Parser *p);")
         self.print()
-        while self.todo:
-            for rulename, rule in list(self.todo.items()):
-                del self.todo[rulename]
-                self.print()
-                if rule.left_recursive:
-                    self.print("// Left-recursive")
-                self.visit(rule)
+        for rulename, rule in list(self.all_rules.items()):
+            self.print()
+            if rule.left_recursive:
+                self.print("// Left-recursive")
+            self.visit(rule)
         if self.skip_actions:
             mode = 0
         else:
@@ -472,7 +456,7 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
 
     def _group_keywords_by_length(self) -> Dict[int, List[Tuple[str, int]]]:
         groups: Dict[int, List[Tuple[str, int]]] = {}
-        for keyword_str, keyword_type in self.callmakervisitor.keyword_cache.items():
+        for keyword_str, keyword_type in self.keywords.items():
             length = len(keyword_str)
             if length in groups:
                 groups[length].append((keyword_str, keyword_type))
@@ -481,9 +465,8 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         return groups
 
     def _setup_keywords(self) -> None:
-        keyword_cache = self.callmakervisitor.keyword_cache
         n_keyword_lists = (
-            len(max(keyword_cache.keys(), key=len)) + 1 if len(keyword_cache) > 0 else 0
+            len(max(self.keywords.keys(), key=len)) + 1 if len(self.keywords) > 0 else 0
         )
         self.print(f"static const int n_keyword_lists = {n_keyword_lists};")
         groups = self._group_keywords_by_length()
@@ -503,7 +486,7 @@ class CParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         self.print("};")
 
     def _setup_soft_keywords(self) -> None:
-        soft_keywords = sorted(self.callmakervisitor.soft_keywords)
+        soft_keywords = sorted(self.soft_keywords)
         self.print("static char *soft_keywords[] = {")
         with self.indent():
             for keyword in soft_keywords:
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/first_sets.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/first_sets.py
index 50ced22..611ef51 100755
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/first_sets.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/first_sets.py
@@ -3,30 +3,27 @@
 import argparse
 import pprint
 import sys
-from typing import Set, Dict
+from typing import Dict, Set
 
 from pegen.build import build_parser
 from pegen.grammar import (
     Alt,
     Cut,
     Gather,
-    Grammar,
     GrammarVisitor,
     Group,
-    Leaf,
     Lookahead,
     NamedItem,
     NameLeaf,
     NegativeLookahead,
     Opt,
-    Repeat,
     Repeat0,
     Repeat1,
     Rhs,
     Rule,
     StringLeaf,
-    PositiveLookahead,
 )
+from pegen.parser_generator import compute_nullables
 
 argparser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     prog="calculate_first_sets",
@@ -38,8 +35,7 @@ argparser.add_argument("grammar_file", help="The grammar file")
 class FirstSetCalculator(GrammarVisitor):
     def __init__(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> None:
         self.rules = rules
-        for rule in rules.values():
-            rule.nullable_visit(rules)
+        self.nullables = compute_nullables(rules)
         self.first_sets: Dict[str, Set[str]] = dict()
         self.in_process: Set[str] = set()
 
@@ -129,7 +125,7 @@ class FirstSetCalculator(GrammarVisitor):
         elif item.name not in self.first_sets:
             self.in_process.add(item.name)
             terminals = self.visit(item.rhs)
-            if item.nullable:
+            if item in self.nullables:
                 terminals.add("")
             self.first_sets[item.name] = terminals
             self.in_process.remove(item.name)
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar.py
index 66fd5b3..fa47b98 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar.py
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 from abc import abstractmethod
 from typing import (
+    TYPE_CHECKING,
     AbstractSet,
     Any,
     Dict,
@@ -11,11 +12,9 @@ from typing import (
     Optional,
     Set,
     Tuple,
-    TYPE_CHECKING,
     Union,
 )
 
-
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from pegen.parser_generator import ParserGenerator
 
@@ -31,7 +30,7 @@ class GrammarVisitor:
         visitor = getattr(self, method, self.generic_visit)
         return visitor(node, *args, **kwargs)
 
-    def generic_visit(self, node: Iterable[Any], *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> None:
+    def generic_visit(self, node: Iterable[Any], *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Any:
         """Called if no explicit visitor function exists for a node."""
         for value in node:
             if isinstance(value, list):
@@ -73,8 +72,6 @@ class Rule:
         self.type = type
         self.rhs = rhs
         self.memo = bool(memo)
-        self.visited = False
-        self.nullable = False
         self.left_recursive = False
         self.leader = False
 
@@ -101,17 +98,6 @@ class Rule:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Rhs]:
         yield self.rhs
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        if self.visited:
-            # A left-recursive rule is considered non-nullable.
-            return False
-        self.visited = True
-        self.nullable = self.rhs.nullable_visit(rules)
-        return self.nullable
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return self.rhs.initial_names()
-
     def flatten(self) -> Rhs:
         # If it's a single parenthesized group, flatten it.
         rhs = self.rhs
@@ -124,10 +110,6 @@ class Rule:
             rhs = rhs.alts[0].items[0].item.rhs
         return rhs
 
-    def collect_todo(self, gen: ParserGenerator) -> None:
-        rhs = self.flatten()
-        rhs.collect_todo(gen)
-
 
 class Leaf:
     def __init__(self, value: str):
@@ -140,14 +122,6 @@ class Leaf:
         if False:
             yield
 
-    @abstractmethod
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        raise NotImplementedError
-
-    @abstractmethod
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        raise NotImplementedError
-
 
 class NameLeaf(Leaf):
     """The value is the name."""
@@ -160,15 +134,6 @@ class NameLeaf(Leaf):
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"NameLeaf({self.value!r})"
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        if self.value in rules:
-            return rules[self.value].nullable_visit(rules)
-        # Token or unknown; never empty.
-        return False
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return {self.value}
-
 
 class StringLeaf(Leaf):
     """The value is a string literal, including quotes."""
@@ -176,13 +141,6 @@ class StringLeaf(Leaf):
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"StringLeaf({self.value!r})"
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        # The string token '' is considered empty.
-        return not self.value
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return set()
-
 
 class Rhs:
     def __init__(self, alts: List[Alt]):
@@ -198,21 +156,14 @@ class Rhs:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[List[Alt]]:
         yield self.alts
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        for alt in self.alts:
-            if alt.nullable_visit(rules):
-                return True
-        return False
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        names: Set[str] = set()
-        for alt in self.alts:
-            names |= alt.initial_names()
-        return names
-
-    def collect_todo(self, gen: ParserGenerator) -> None:
-        for alt in self.alts:
-            alt.collect_todo(gen)
+    @property
+    def can_be_inlined(self) -> bool:
+        if len(self.alts) != 1 or len(self.alts[0].items) != 1:
+            return False
+        # If the alternative has an action we cannot inline
+        if getattr(self.alts[0], "action", None) is not None:
+            return False
+        return True
 
 
 class Alt:
@@ -239,31 +190,12 @@ class Alt:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[List[NamedItem]]:
         yield self.items
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        for item in self.items:
-            if not item.nullable_visit(rules):
-                return False
-        return True
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        names: Set[str] = set()
-        for item in self.items:
-            names |= item.initial_names()
-            if not item.nullable:
-                break
-        return names
-
-    def collect_todo(self, gen: ParserGenerator) -> None:
-        for item in self.items:
-            item.collect_todo(gen)
-
 
 class NamedItem:
     def __init__(self, name: Optional[str], item: Item, type: Optional[str] = None):
         self.name = name
         self.item = item
         self.type = type
-        self.nullable = False
 
     def __str__(self) -> str:
         if not SIMPLE_STR and self.name:
@@ -277,16 +209,6 @@ class NamedItem:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Item]:
         yield self.item
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        self.nullable = self.item.nullable_visit(rules)
-        return self.nullable
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return self.item.initial_names()
-
-    def collect_todo(self, gen: ParserGenerator) -> None:
-        gen.callmakervisitor.visit(self.item)
-
 
 class Forced:
     def __init__(self, node: Plain):
@@ -298,12 +220,6 @@ class Forced:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Plain]:
         yield self.node
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return True
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return set()
-
 
 class Lookahead:
     def __init__(self, node: Plain, sign: str):
@@ -316,12 +232,6 @@ class Lookahead:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Plain]:
         yield self.node
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return True
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return set()
-
 
 class PositiveLookahead(Lookahead):
     def __init__(self, node: Plain):
@@ -357,12 +267,6 @@ class Opt:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Item]:
         yield self.node
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return True
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return self.node.initial_names()
-
 
 class Repeat:
     """Shared base class for x* and x+."""
@@ -371,16 +275,9 @@ class Repeat:
         self.node = node
         self.memo: Optional[Tuple[Optional[str], str]] = None
 
-    @abstractmethod
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        raise NotImplementedError
-
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Plain]:
         yield self.node
 
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return self.node.initial_names()
-
 
 class Repeat0(Repeat):
     def __str__(self) -> str:
@@ -394,9 +291,6 @@ class Repeat0(Repeat):
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"Repeat0({self.node!r})"
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return True
-
 
 class Repeat1(Repeat):
     def __str__(self) -> str:
@@ -410,9 +304,6 @@ class Repeat1(Repeat):
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"Repeat1({self.node!r})"
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return False
-
 
 class Gather(Repeat):
     def __init__(self, separator: Plain, node: Plain):
@@ -425,9 +316,6 @@ class Gather(Repeat):
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
         return f"Gather({self.separator!r}, {self.node!r})"
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return False
-
 
 class Group:
     def __init__(self, rhs: Rhs):
@@ -442,12 +330,6 @@ class Group:
     def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[Rhs]:
         yield self.rhs
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return self.rhs.nullable_visit(rules)
-
-    def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
-        return self.rhs.initial_names()
-
 
 class Cut:
     def __init__(self) -> None:
@@ -468,9 +350,6 @@ class Cut:
             return NotImplemented
         return True
 
-    def nullable_visit(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> bool:
-        return True
-
     def initial_names(self) -> AbstractSet[str]:
         return set()
 
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar_visualizer.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar_visualizer.py
index 7362ec5..ab5c636 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar_visualizer.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/grammar_visualizer.py
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 import argparse
 import sys
-
-from typing import Any, Iterator, Callable
+from typing import Any, Callable, Iterator
 
 from pegen.build import build_parser
 from pegen.grammar import Grammar, Rule
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/keywordgen.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/keywordgen.py
index 6a07f6e..35a5e1a 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/keywordgen.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/keywordgen.py
@@ -59,11 +59,11 @@ def main() -> None:
     with args.tokens_file as tok_file:
         all_tokens, exact_tok, non_exact_tok = generate_token_definitions(tok_file)
     gen = CParserGenerator(grammar, all_tokens, exact_tok, non_exact_tok, file=None)
-    gen.collect_todo()
+    gen.collect_rules()
 
     with args.keyword_file as thefile:
-        all_keywords = sorted(list(gen.callmakervisitor.keyword_cache.keys()) + EXTRA_KEYWORDS)
-        all_soft_keywords = sorted(gen.callmakervisitor.soft_keywords)
+        all_keywords = sorted(list(gen.keywords.keys()) + EXTRA_KEYWORDS)
+        all_soft_keywords = sorted(gen.soft_keywords)
 
         keywords = "" if not all_keywords else "    " + ",\n    ".join(map(repr, all_keywords))
         soft_keywords = (
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/parser_generator.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/parser_generator.py
index 33ecee1..f2105d8 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/parser_generator.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/parser_generator.py
@@ -1,22 +1,76 @@
+import ast
 import contextlib
+import re
 from abc import abstractmethod
-from typing import IO, AbstractSet, Dict, Iterator, List, Optional, Set, Text, Tuple
+from typing import (
+    IO,
+    AbstractSet,
+    Any,
+    Dict,
+    Iterable,
+    Iterator,
+    List,
+    Optional,
+    Set,
+    Text,
+    Tuple,
+    Union,
+)
 
 from pegen import sccutils
 from pegen.grammar import (
     Alt,
+    Cut,
+    Forced,
     Gather,
     Grammar,
     GrammarError,
     GrammarVisitor,
+    Group,
+    Lookahead,
     NamedItem,
     NameLeaf,
+    Opt,
     Plain,
+    Repeat0,
+    Repeat1,
     Rhs,
     Rule,
+    StringLeaf,
 )
 
 
+class RuleCollectorVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
+    """Visitor that invokes a provieded callmaker visitor with just the NamedItem nodes"""
+
+    def __init__(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule], callmakervisitor: GrammarVisitor) -> None:
+        self.rulses = rules
+        self.callmaker = callmakervisitor
+
+    def visit_Rule(self, rule: Rule) -> None:
+        self.visit(rule.flatten())
+
+    def visit_NamedItem(self, item: NamedItem) -> None:
+        self.callmaker.visit(item)
+
+
+class KeywordCollectorVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
+    """Visitor that collects all the keywods and soft keywords in the Grammar"""
+
+    def __init__(self, gen: "ParserGenerator", keywords: Dict[str, int], soft_keywords: Set[str]):
+        self.generator = gen
+        self.keywords = keywords
+        self.soft_keywords = soft_keywords
+
+    def visit_StringLeaf(self, node: StringLeaf) -> None:
+        val = ast.literal_eval(node.value)
+        if re.match(r"[a-zA-Z_]\w*\Z", val):  # This is a keyword
+            if node.value.endswith("'") and node.value not in self.keywords:
+                self.keywords[val] = self.generator.keyword_type()
+            else:
+                return self.soft_keywords.add(node.value.replace('"', ""))
+
+
 class RuleCheckingVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def __init__(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule], tokens: Set[str]):
         self.rules = rules
@@ -39,6 +93,8 @@ class ParserGenerator:
     def __init__(self, grammar: Grammar, tokens: Set[str], file: Optional[IO[Text]]):
         self.grammar = grammar
         self.tokens = tokens
+        self.keywords: Dict[str, int] = {}
+        self.soft_keywords: Set[str] = set()
         self.rules = grammar.rules
         self.validate_rule_names()
         if "trailer" not in grammar.metas and "start" not in self.rules:
@@ -48,12 +104,10 @@ class ParserGenerator:
             checker.visit(rule)
         self.file = file
         self.level = 0
-        compute_nullables(self.rules)
         self.first_graph, self.first_sccs = compute_left_recursives(self.rules)
-        self.todo = self.rules.copy()  # Rules to generate
         self.counter = 0  # For name_rule()/name_loop()
         self.keyword_counter = 499  # For keyword_type()
-        self.all_rules: Dict[str, Rule] = {}  # Rules + temporal rules
+        self.all_rules: Dict[str, Rule] = self.rules.copy()  # Rules + temporal rules
         self._local_variable_stack: List[List[str]] = []
 
     def validate_rule_names(self) -> None:
@@ -94,39 +148,43 @@ class ParserGenerator:
         for line in lines.splitlines():
             self.print(line)
 
-    def collect_todo(self) -> None:
+    def collect_rules(self) -> None:
+        keyword_collector = KeywordCollectorVisitor(self, self.keywords, self.soft_keywords)
+        for rule in self.all_rules.values():
+            keyword_collector.visit(rule)
+
+        rule_collector = RuleCollectorVisitor(self.rules, self.callmakervisitor)
         done: Set[str] = set()
         while True:
-            alltodo = list(self.todo)
-            self.all_rules.update(self.todo)
-            todo = [i for i in alltodo if i not in done]
+            computed_rules = list(self.all_rules)
+            todo = [i for i in computed_rules if i not in done]
             if not todo:
                 break
+            done = set(self.all_rules)
             for rulename in todo:
-                self.todo[rulename].collect_todo(self)
-            done = set(alltodo)
+                rule_collector.visit(self.all_rules[rulename])
 
     def keyword_type(self) -> int:
         self.keyword_counter += 1
         return self.keyword_counter
 
-    def name_node(self, rhs: Rhs) -> str:
+    def artifical_rule_from_rhs(self, rhs: Rhs) -> str:
         self.counter += 1
         name = f"_tmp_{self.counter}"  # TODO: Pick a nicer name.
-        self.todo[name] = Rule(name, None, rhs)
+        self.all_rules[name] = Rule(name, None, rhs)
         return name
 
-    def name_loop(self, node: Plain, is_repeat1: bool) -> str:
+    def artificial_rule_from_repeat(self, node: Plain, is_repeat1: bool) -> str:
         self.counter += 1
         if is_repeat1:
             prefix = "_loop1_"
         else:
             prefix = "_loop0_"
-        name = f"{prefix}{self.counter}"  # TODO: It's ugly to signal via the name.
-        self.todo[name] = Rule(name, None, Rhs([Alt([NamedItem(None, node)])]))
+        name = f"{prefix}{self.counter}"
+        self.all_rules[name] = Rule(name, None, Rhs([Alt([NamedItem(None, node)])]))
         return name
 
-    def name_gather(self, node: Gather) -> str:
+    def artifical_rule_from_gather(self, node: Gather) -> str:
         self.counter += 1
         name = f"_gather_{self.counter}"
         self.counter += 1
@@ -135,7 +193,7 @@ class ParserGenerator:
             [NamedItem(None, node.separator), NamedItem("elem", node.node)],
             action="elem",
         )
-        self.todo[extra_function_name] = Rule(
+        self.all_rules[extra_function_name] = Rule(
             extra_function_name,
             None,
             Rhs([extra_function_alt]),
@@ -143,7 +201,7 @@ class ParserGenerator:
         alt = Alt(
             [NamedItem("elem", node.node), NamedItem("seq", NameLeaf(extra_function_name))],
         )
-        self.todo[name] = Rule(
+        self.all_rules[name] = Rule(
             name,
             None,
             Rhs([alt]),
@@ -160,13 +218,120 @@ class ParserGenerator:
         return name
 
 
-def compute_nullables(rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> None:
+class NullableVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
+    def __init__(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> None:
+        self.rules = rules
+        self.visited: Set[Any] = set()
+        self.nullables: Set[Union[Rule, NamedItem]] = set()
+
+    def visit_Rule(self, rule: Rule) -> bool:
+        if rule in self.visited:
+            return False
+        self.visited.add(rule)
+        if self.visit(rule.rhs):
+            self.nullables.add(rule)
+        return rule in self.nullables
+
+    def visit_Rhs(self, rhs: Rhs) -> bool:
+        for alt in rhs.alts:
+            if self.visit(alt):
+                return True
+        return False
+
+    def visit_Alt(self, alt: Alt) -> bool:
+        for item in alt.items:
+            if not self.visit(item):
+                return False
+        return True
+
+    def visit_Forced(self, force: Forced) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def visit_LookAhead(self, lookahead: Lookahead) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def visit_Opt(self, opt: Opt) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def visit_Repeat0(self, repeat: Repeat0) -> bool:
+        return True
+
+    def visit_Repeat1(self, repeat: Repeat1) -> bool:
+        return False
+
+    def visit_Gather(self, gather: Gather) -> bool:
+        return False
+
+    def visit_Cut(self, cut: Cut) -> bool:
+        return False
+
+    def visit_Group(self, group: Group) -> bool:
+        return self.visit(group.rhs)
+
+    def visit_NamedItem(self, item: NamedItem) -> bool:
+        if self.visit(item.item):
+            self.nullables.add(item)
+        return item in self.nullables
+
+    def visit_NameLeaf(self, node: NameLeaf) -> bool:
+        if node.value in self.rules:
+            return self.visit(self.rules[node.value])
+        # Token or unknown; never empty.
+        return False
+
+    def visit_StringLeaf(self, node: StringLeaf) -> bool:
+        # The string token '' is considered empty.
+        return not node.value
+
+
+def compute_nullables(rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> Set[Any]:
     """Compute which rules in a grammar are nullable.
 
     Thanks to TatSu (tatsu/leftrec.py) for inspiration.
     """
+    nullable_visitor = NullableVisitor(rules)
     for rule in rules.values():
-        rule.nullable_visit(rules)
+        nullable_visitor.visit(rule)
+    return nullable_visitor.nullables
+
+
+class InitialNamesVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
+    def __init__(self, rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> None:
+        self.rules = rules
+        self.nullables = compute_nullables(rules)
+
+    def generic_visit(self, node: Iterable[Any], *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Set[Any]:
+        names: Set[str] = set()
+        for value in node:
+            if isinstance(value, list):
+                for item in value:
+                    names |= self.visit(item, *args, **kwargs)
+            else:
+                names |= self.visit(value, *args, **kwargs)
+        return names
+
+    def visit_Alt(self, alt: Alt) -> Set[Any]:
+        names: Set[str] = set()
+        for item in alt.items:
+            names |= self.visit(item)
+            if item not in self.nullables:
+                break
+        return names
+
+    def visit_Forced(self, force: Forced) -> Set[Any]:
+        return set()
+
+    def visit_LookAhead(self, lookahead: Lookahead) -> Set[Any]:
+        return set()
+
+    def visit_Cut(self, cut: Cut) -> Set[Any]:
+        return set()
+
+    def visit_NameLeaf(self, node: NameLeaf) -> Set[Any]:
+        return {node.value}
+
+    def visit_StringLeaf(self, node: StringLeaf) -> Set[Any]:
+        return set()
 
 
 def compute_left_recursives(
@@ -207,10 +372,11 @@ def make_first_graph(rules: Dict[str, Rule]) -> Dict[str, AbstractSet[str]]:
 
     Note that this requires the nullable flags to have been computed.
     """
+    initial_name_visitor = InitialNamesVisitor(rules)
     graph = {}
     vertices: Set[str] = set()
     for rulename, rhs in rules.items():
-        graph[rulename] = names = rhs.initial_names()
+        graph[rulename] = names = initial_name_visitor.visit(rhs)
         vertices |= names
     for vertex in vertices:
         graph.setdefault(vertex, set())
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/python_generator.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/python_generator.py
index 201bf2ba..7aa730a 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/python_generator.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/python_generator.py
@@ -95,8 +95,6 @@ class PythonCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def __init__(self, parser_generator: ParserGenerator):
         self.gen = parser_generator
         self.cache: Dict[Any, Any] = {}
-        self.keywords: Set[str] = set()
-        self.soft_keywords: Set[str] = set()
 
     def visit_NameLeaf(self, node: NameLeaf) -> Tuple[Optional[str], str]:
         name = node.value
@@ -111,12 +109,6 @@ class PythonCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
         return name, f"self.{name}()"
 
     def visit_StringLeaf(self, node: StringLeaf) -> Tuple[str, str]:
-        val = ast.literal_eval(node.value)
-        if re.match(r"[a-zA-Z_]\w*\Z", val):  # This is a keyword
-            if node.value.endswith("'"):
-                self.keywords.add(val)
-            else:
-                self.soft_keywords.add(val)
         return "literal", f"self.expect({node.value})"
 
     def visit_Rhs(self, node: Rhs) -> Tuple[Optional[str], str]:
@@ -125,7 +117,7 @@ class PythonCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
         if len(node.alts) == 1 and len(node.alts[0].items) == 1:
             self.cache[node] = self.visit(node.alts[0].items[0])
         else:
-            name = self.gen.name_node(node)
+            name = self.gen.artifical_rule_from_rhs(node)
             self.cache[node] = name, f"self.{name}()"
         return self.cache[node]
 
@@ -163,21 +155,21 @@ class PythonCallMakerVisitor(GrammarVisitor):
     def visit_Repeat0(self, node: Repeat0) -> Tuple[str, str]:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_loop(node.node, False)
+        name = self.gen.artificial_rule_from_repeat(node.node, False)
         self.cache[node] = name, f"self.{name}(),"  # Also a trailing comma!
         return self.cache[node]
 
     def visit_Repeat1(self, node: Repeat1) -> Tuple[str, str]:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_loop(node.node, True)
+        name = self.gen.artificial_rule_from_repeat(node.node, True)
         self.cache[node] = name, f"self.{name}()"  # But no trailing comma here!
         return self.cache[node]
 
     def visit_Gather(self, node: Gather) -> Tuple[str, str]:
         if node in self.cache:
             return self.cache[node]
-        name = self.gen.name_gather(node)
+        name = self.gen.artifical_rule_from_gather(node)
         self.cache[node] = name, f"self.{name}()"  # No trailing comma here either!
         return self.cache[node]
 
@@ -219,6 +211,7 @@ class PythonParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         )
 
     def generate(self, filename: str) -> None:
+        self.collect_rules()
         header = self.grammar.metas.get("header", MODULE_PREFIX)
         if header is not None:
             self.print(header.rstrip("\n").format(filename=filename))
@@ -228,17 +221,15 @@ class PythonParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         cls_name = self.grammar.metas.get("class", "GeneratedParser")
         self.print("# Keywords and soft keywords are listed at the end of the parser definition.")
         self.print(f"class {cls_name}(Parser):")
-        while self.todo:
-            for rulename, rule in list(self.todo.items()):
-                del self.todo[rulename]
-                self.print()
-                with self.indent():
-                    self.visit(rule)
+        for rule in self.all_rules.values():
+            self.print()
+            with self.indent():
+                self.visit(rule)
 
         self.print()
         with self.indent():
-            self.print(f"KEYWORDS = {tuple(self.callmakervisitor.keywords)}")
-            self.print(f"SOFT_KEYWORDS = {tuple(self.callmakervisitor.soft_keywords)}")
+            self.print(f"KEYWORDS = {tuple(self.keywords)}")
+            self.print(f"SOFT_KEYWORDS = {tuple(self.soft_keywords)}")
 
         trailer = self.grammar.metas.get("trailer", MODULE_SUFFIX.format(class_name=cls_name))
         if trailer is not None:
@@ -270,8 +261,6 @@ class PythonParserGenerator(ParserGenerator, GrammarVisitor):
         self.print(f"def {node.name}(self) -> Optional[{node_type}]:")
         with self.indent():
             self.print(f"# {node.name}: {rhs}")
-            if node.nullable:
-                self.print(f"# nullable={node.nullable}")
             self.print("mark = self._mark()")
             if self.alts_uses_locations(node.rhs.alts):
                 self.print("tok = self._tokenizer.peek()")
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/testutil.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/testutil.py
index e0928a4..8e5dbc5 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/testutil.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/testutil.py
@@ -4,10 +4,9 @@ import os
 import pathlib
 import sys
 import textwrap
-import tokenize
 import token
-
-from typing import Any, cast, Dict, IO, Type, Final
+import tokenize
+from typing import IO, Any, Dict, Final, Type, cast
 
 from pegen.build import compile_c_extension
 from pegen.c_generator import CParserGenerator
diff --git a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/validator.py b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/validator.py
index e7d6980..c48a01e 100644
--- a/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/validator.py
+++ b/Tools/peg_generator/pegen/validator.py
@@ -1,12 +1,7 @@
 from typing import Optional
 
 from pegen import grammar
-from pegen.grammar import (
-    Alt,
-    GrammarVisitor,
-    Rule,
-    Rhs,
-)
+from pegen.grammar import Alt, GrammarVisitor, Rhs, Rule
 
 
 class ValidationError(Exception):